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A-level Psychology > Issues and Debates > Flashcards

Issues and Debates Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the features of free will?

A
  • People play active role + consciously make choices about behaviour/thought
  • Self-determining, active agents: responsible for behaviour independent of internal/external influences
  • Free from causal influences of past events: impossible to predict behaviour (not compatible with science)
  • Instead, psychology should study subjective experiences, not general laws
  • Teleology (do something for a purpose)
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2
Q

What is an example of an approach which uses free will?

A

Humanistic approach: freedom necessary to achieve self-actualisation

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3
Q

What are the features of hard determinism?

A
  • Free will is an illusion so behaviour/thoughts outside control
  • Internal/external influences govern/control us
  • Behaviour is predictable (compatible with science)
  • Aetiology (explains causes)
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4
Q

What are the features of soft determinism?

A
  • Behaviour/thoughts are to an extent governed by internal/external factors, but people still have some element of control
  • Behaviour is predictable but not inevitable
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5
Q

What is an example of an approach which uses soft determinism?

A

Cognitive approach: We choose our own behaviours/thoughts, but these choices only operate within limits of our knowledge/ experiences (schema)

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6
Q

What are the 3 types of determinism?

A

Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism

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7
Q

What is biological determinism?

A

Emphasises role of biological factors in controlling behaviour/ thoughts (biological approach)
- genes -> SERT in OCD
- neurochemistry -> high dopamine (attention + movement) in OCD
- brain structure -> caudate nucleus in OCD
- brain function -> autonomic NS in anxiety or stress

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8
Q

What is environmental determinism?

A

All behaviours controlled through conditioning; our experience of choice is the sum of reinforcement through life (behaviourist approach)
Skinner- free will is ‘an illusion’
Phobias acquired via classical and maintained via operant

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9
Q

What is ‘double’ determinism?

A

Interactions of biology (genotype) and environment (phenotype)

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10
Q

What is psychic determinism?

A

Behaviour controlled by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood (psychodynamic approach)
- psychodynamic stages of development & fixations
- ‘slip of the tongue’ explained by influence of unconscious

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11
Q

What are 2 positive implications of taking a free will approach? (over determinism)

A

Important implications for mental health
- general laws underestimate the uniqueness of humans
- conscious reflection on own actions is seen as best way of achieving goals + learning from mistakes
- adolescents with strong degree of fatalism (external locus of control) = higher risk of depression
Believing + acknowledging free will has + impact on self

Consistent with society’s ideas of responsibility + self-control
- in law, offenders held responsible for their actions
- Mobley 1981 ‘born to kill’ due to family disposition: US court rejected argument
- hard determinism excuses behaviour, free will does not
Free will argument important in social and legal sense

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12
Q

What are 2 positive implications of taking a determinist approach? (over free will)

A

Helps establish psychology as a science
- looks for causes of behaviour (although unfalsifiable)
- general laws developed, meaning behaviour can be predicted -> RW application (eg: SSRIs)
Places psychology with established sciences so explanations for behaviour more valid + trusted, effective RW application in treatment

Can explain behaviour that undermines free will
- sz and OCD loss control over thoughts and behaviour
- people with disorders don’t consciously choose delusions/obsessions/ compulsions
- true as meds (eg: antipsychotics) alleviate symptoms
For mental illness, behaviour determined, gives patients certainty disorder not to own choosing

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13
Q

Why is the interactionist approach better than just free will or determinism?

A

Interactionist approach is best
- cognitive approach adopts soft determinism to explain behaviour
- we are ‘choosers’ of our own behaviour, but these choices are limited by what is known (schema determined by past experiences)
- CBT works by changing automatic, negative thoughts to more rational (can alleviate depression)
- SLT reciprocal determinism: environment influences you, and you influence environment around you, both impact each other via behaviours chosen to be performed
Human behaviour better explained + treated when considering the value of both free will and determinism

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14
Q

What are causal explanations?

A

Based on the scientific notion that behaviour is determined by internal and/or external factors (there is a cause-and-effect relationship)

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15
Q

What are the basic principles of science?

A

All events have a cause: the cause can be tested using empirical methods (experiments)
IV manipulated + EVs controlled + DV objectively measured to establish causal relationship
Causes of behaviour then explained using general laws/theories
Formulation of laws allows for prediction + control (prevention/treatment) of behaviour

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16
Q

Is psychology a science?

A

For most approaches, psychology is a science (uses OTHER), some more deterministic than others (hard vs soft)

For the humanistic approach… scientific method not appropriate for studying complex human consciousness/experience
Humans are subjective in thinking/behaving due to free will
Free will inconsistent with aims of science

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17
Q

What 2 words are linked with free will/determinism debate?

A

Predictable / unpredictable
Inevitable / not inevitable

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18
Q

What is the motto of the holistic approach?

A

Whole > than the sum of the parts

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19
Q

What does the holistic approach suggest?

A

Human behaviour considered as a whole, integrated, indivisible experience
-> Behaviour is complex and whole system cannot be understood from just knowing individual components

Emergent properties arise from collaborative functioning of system, but doesn’t belong to any one part, only when system works as a whole

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20
Q

Give an example of an emergent property in psychology

A

Human consciousness is an emergent property of brain, not down to single neuron, but interconnections of neurons in nervous system generates complex human emotions eg: fear

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21
Q

Which approaches use holism?

A

Humanistic
Social psychology

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22
Q

What is the motto of the reductionist approach?

A

System = sum of parts

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23
Q

What is the scientific principle that underlines the reductionist approach?

A

Parsimony

Complex phenomena should be explained in simplest terms possible as less assumptions are made -> explanation more likely

Human behaviour should + can be understood by breaking systems down into smaller component parts

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24
Q

What are the 2 types of reductionism? Are they compatible with science?

A

Biological reductionism
Environmental reductionism

Both compatible with science as behaviour tested empirically and measured objectively

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25
Q

What is biological reductionism?

A

We are biological organisms, so behaviour reduced to physical/ biological level, explained through neurochemistry/ physiology/ genes/ evolution

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26
Q

Give an example of biological reductionism

A

Schizophrenia from dysfunctional levels of serotonin

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27
Q

What is environmental reductionism?

A

Complex behaviours reduced to series of S-R chains that come about through conditioning

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28
Q

Give an example of environmental reductionism

A

Phobias acquired via classical conditioning, maintained via operant conditioning

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29
Q

What does levels of explanation mean?

A

Which level is appropriate to explain human behaviour

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30
Q

What are the 3 levels of explanation with examples from schizophrenia?

A
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31
Q

What are 2 strengths of holism?

A

Some behaviours only understood at higher level
- due to some behaviours only emerging in group context, cannot be understood at individual level of group members
- eg: Stanford prison experiment not understood by observing participants as individuals, as all had satisfactory health checks
- was understood by interaction between people and the group
- quality of feelings only understood from subjective interpretation
- eg: thinking about colour blue/red involved same region in brain, but feelings experienced are different -> not explained by reductionist
Higher level analysis useful as provides more valid account of subjective human behaviour

Doesn’t oversimplify behaviours
- removing social context may result in inaccurate conclusions about the behaviour as social context often important in understanding intention behind the behaviour
- eg: pointing a finger follows same physiological pattern regardless of intention, but social context allows understanding of why eg: drawing attention, aggression
Holism can fully explain behaviour, not just part of explanation

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32
Q

What are 2 strengths of reductionism?

A

Has more widespread practical value
- holism suggests that eg: depression caused by many factors -> hard to know which is most influential, and thus which to prioritise for therapy
- but by breaking disorders down, can empirically test effectiveness of drug therapy (SSRIs)
By identifying most influential cause of behaviour, reductionism can provide treatments that are more useful to a wider range of people

Scientific basis to research
- focus on empiricism and objectivity
- to test hypothesis, behaviour broken down into parts, allows for operationalisation of variables
- can establish causal relationships
- eg: Strange situation operationalised component behaviours such as separation anxiety
Reductionist approach increases credibility of psychology as a science

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33
Q

Why is the interactionist approach better than just holism or just reductionism?

A

Considers how several levels of explanation interact to explain a behaviour
- eg: MAOA-L variant and abusive childhood → aggression
By considering interaction of dif levels, more effective treatments/interventions offered

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34
Q

What does the nature-nuture debate look at?

A

As behaviour lies on a continuum between nature and nurture, both necessary to explain behaviour

Looks at relative contribution of nature/nurture on a particular behaviour

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35
Q

Outline the nature argument

A

Based on nativism: all human characteristics are hereditary

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36
Q

Which approach is PRIMARILY nature?

A

Biological approach

Behaviour + thinking is result of innate biological systems -> although does consider environmental influences (phenotype)

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37
Q

Outline the nurture argument

A

Based on empiricism, mind is a blank slate and behaviour is result of environmental learning

Dif levels of the environment -> pre-natal (eg smoking, music) post-natal (eg social conditions)

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38
Q

Which approach is STRICTLY nurture?

A

Behaviourist

Behaviour + thinking shaped through learning

39
Q

Which 3 approaches take an interactionist approach (diathesis stress model) in understanding how nature and nurture shape behaviour?

A

Cognitive: we share same means of cognitive processing BUT shaped through experience

Psychodynamic: behaviour driven by unconscious drives and conflicts to deal with BUT defence mechanisms product of upbringing

Humanistic: innate drive to self-actualise BUT problems in achieving it arises from experiences and upbringing (conditions of worth)

40
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

Change in genetic activity without change to gene: caused by interaction of genes and environment

41
Q

How does epigenetics change genetic activity and expression?

A

Events (eg: smoking) leaves ‘marks’ on DNA, switching genes on/off
Explains why smoking has a lifelong influence as changes way genes expressed

42
Q

As epigenetics influence the genetic codes of future generations, what does this mean for the NN debate?

A

Adds third element to debate (life experience of previous generations)

43
Q

How can the relative contribution of nature/nurture be measured?

A

Concordance rates

Correlation coefficient 0.01 → genes contribute almost nothing to individual differences

Correlation coefficient 1.0 → genes are the only reason for individual differences

44
Q

As IQ has a correlation coefficient of 0.5, what does this mean?

A

Intelligence is half genes, half environment

45
Q

What is a strength of the nature nurture debate?

A

Both have real world applications
- depression linked to serotonin -> SSRIs developed to increase serotonin stimulating post-synaptic neuron
- phobias learnt from environment fear response -> systematic desensitisation using counterconditioning
Debate not just theoretical, useful as both shape behaviour and offer effective therapies

46
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of the nature nurture debate?

A

Hard to separate their relative contribution as nature and nurture exert influence on each other
- genes exert influence over behaviour (niche picking) -> seek experiences/ environments that suit their genes (eg: musically talented selects musical friends and experiences)
- Maguire et al structural brain scans on London taxi drivers -> posterior hippocampus larger (‘The Knowledge’ test and special navigation skills)
Doesn’t make sense to look for evidence of N/N, should rather follow an interactionist approach to explain behaviour…

Both sides have led to extremist views
- extreme nativist, determinist stance links race (genetics) to intelligence, addiction. Used by Hitler to create master race
- extreme empiricist, behaviour shaping -> social control/manipulation eg: Stalin (USSR) believed could engineer citizens through conditioning
Psychologists should be aware of negative ethical implications of taking an extreme position

47
Q

Why is the interactionist approach better than just nature or just nurture?

A

Interactionist considers impact of both nature and nurture: holistic
- diathesis stress model- eg: MAOA-L variant and abusive childhood → aggression
- epigenetics- in WW2, Nazi’s blocked distribution of food to Dutch, women gave birth to low-birth-weight babies -> 2x more likely to develop sz (previous life experiences influence health of children)
Importance and usefulness of interactionist approach to fully understand behaviour

48
Q

What is the idiographic approach to psychological investigation?

A

Focuses on individual/small group -> unique personal experience to understand behaviour

Doesn’t compare, conclusions may be generalised with caution to help others going through similar experiences

49
Q

What is the nomothetic approach to psychological investigation?

A

Investigates large, varied group -> general laws/models to understand behaviour

Compares (IQ), classifies (DSM V), and measures people against general laws (WMM), to predict and then change behaviour

50
Q

What are the methods of study for the idiographic approach?

A

Qualitative (case studies, unstructured interviews, open questions)
Analysed by thematic analysis

51
Q

What are the methods of study for the nomothetic approach?

A

Quantitative (experiments, correlational analysis, observations)
Analysed for statistical significance

52
Q

Why does the idiographic approach reject the scientific method?

A

Objectivity not possible- looks at individual’s unique, subjective experience, what a behaviour means to them

53
Q

How does the nomothetic approach adopt the scientific method?

A

OTHER
Large sample size is representative -> develops laws

Helps establish psych as a science

54
Q

Which 2 approaches adopt the idiographic approach?

A

Humanistic: Maslow + Rogers study conscious, subjective experience of individual

Psychodynamic: studies unique individuals with clinical case study method to understand clients and help them overcome psychological disorders- eg: Little Hans

55
Q

Which 4 approaches adopt the nomothetic approach?

A

Biological: when explaining + treating disorders

Behaviourist: established laws of learning (classical/operant)

Cognitive: MSM, WMM believed to generalise to all

Social psychology: general conclusions about human behaviour (situational factors responsible for conformity)

56
Q

What is a strength of the idiographic approach? (weakness of nomothetic)

A

Focuses attention on individual
- qualitative data gives more complete, holistic understanding of behaviour
- leads to specific treatment, rather than general
- nomothetic loses the individual: eg 1% chance of developing sz says little about subjective experience if diagnosed with disorder
Doesn’t overlook the importance and richness of individual human experience

57
Q

What is a strength of the nomothetic approach? (weakness of idiographic)

A

Significant emphasis on finding patterns means results generalised to wider population
- behaviour predicted, controlled, changed
- eg: personality questionnaires useful when selecting employees
- eg: DSM 5 for diagnosis, then treatment
- idiographic small samples (eg Little Hans -> Oedipus complex) unrepresentative sample to produce valid theories
Looking for similarities led to significant RW application that benefitted society

HOWEVER maybe not appropriate to generalise widely (context crucial), eg: auditory hallucinations not a disorder in African cultures (not helpful)

58
Q

Why is it best to use both an idiographic and nomothetic approach to psychological investigation?

A

Idiographic contributes to nomothetic by challenging/adding to existing psychological body of knowledge
- KF highlighting significant flaw in MSM -> validity questions -> development of WMM
- split brain patient case studies add to brains scans looking at hemispheric lateralisation -> better understanding
Employing both approaches to investigation allows rich, detailed descriptions of human behaviour within framework of valid general laws

59
Q

What is universality?

A

The belief that some behaviours/characteristics are the same for all humans, regardless of experience/ upbringing/ gender/ culture

60
Q

Why is it key to develop theories that show the similarities and differences between males/females?

A

So no gender is devalued

61
Q

What is androcentrism

A

Male-centred view of the world, so theories explaining behaviour accepts male behaviour as the norm/desirable

If female behaviour differs from norm, judged as abnormal/less desirable, so female behaviour misunderstood or even pathologised

62
Q

Why does androcentrism occur?

A

Historically male psychologists

63
Q

What is an example of androcentrism?

A

Male anger = rational response to external pressure
Female anger = premenstrual syndrome

64
Q

What is the definition of gender bias?

A

Tendency for differential treatment towards one gender over another

65
Q

What are the 2 types of gender bias?

A

Alpha bias
Beta bias

66
Q

What is alphas bias, and what is the consequence of it?

A

Tendency to exaggerate differences between males & females

One gender’s behaviour being misrepresented/ discriminated against/ undervalued

67
Q

What is an example of alpha bias?

A

Freud’s theory of moral development

In phallic stage, boys have very strong castration anxiety, resolved when identifying with father
Girls not under same pressure, so identify with mother later -> weaker superego and sense of morality (devalued)

68
Q

What is beta bias, and what is the consequence of it?

A

Tendency to ignore/ minimise differences between males & females (assumes universality)

One gender’s behaviour being misrepresented/not fully understood

69
Q

What is an example of beta bias?

A

Asch

Assumed no need to use female participants, but actually conformity higher in women as more concerned with social relationships

70
Q

What are 7 ways to reduce gender bias?

A

Use M+ F in research
Use M + F researchers
Don’t exaggerate/minimise findings
Don’t extrapolate findings
Be sensitive to norms when reporting findings
Challenge existing theories
Reflexive approach

71
Q

Why is it important to reduce gender/culture bias?

A

Leads to theories that account for real differences between behaviours

72
Q

What are 2 ‘negative consequences’ of gender bias?

A

Negative consequences for males
- depression 2x more common in women
- partly due to socio-cultural perspective -> women more likely to seek diagnosis and talk about feelings on the ‘man-up’ notion
- psychologists more likely to diagnose women due to biases
Males not receiving treatment

Negative consequences for females
- alpha bias: ‘survival efficiency’ genetically programs men to be promiscuous to pass on genes, seen as a positive behaviour in males (not females, discriminated)
- beta bias: ‘fight/flight’ stress response early research into males due to female hormone fluctuation, universality assumed, female stress response misunderstood
Highlights need to reduce gender bias so as explanations of females not valid, are discriminated

73
Q

What is a weakness of gender bias?

A

Research challenging gender biases published less
- analysis on >1000 articles found research on gender bias funded less often + published by less prestigious journals
- people less aware, may not apply to their work
Gender bias not taken as seriously as other biases

74
Q

What is a strength of discussing gender bias?

A

Discussing gender bias is useful as can lead to reformation of theories, better understanding of female behaviour
- women ‘tend and befriend’ response is adaptive (care/protect/form allies)
- plentiful oxytocin in women reduces F/F
- theory accounts for real differences
Becoming more aware of beta bias develops theories that show similarities and differences between genders

75
Q

What is cultural universalism?

A

Belief that some behaviours are the same for all cultures

76
Q

Why is it key to develop theories that show the similarities and differences between dif cultures?

A

So no culture is devalued

77
Q

What is the definition of culture bias?

A

Tendency to interpret behaviour through own cultural lens, ignoring effects of cultural differences

78
Q

Why does culture bias exist?

A

Due to research on WEIRD people (western educated people from industrialised rich democracies)

79
Q

What is the issue of most research being on WEIRD people?

A

Theories use this standard to judge behaviour, behaviour of other cultures seen as abnormal/ inferior/ unusual -> discrimination

80
Q

What is ethnocentrism?

A

Tendency to see behaviour from standards + values of own culture
- sees their culture as superior and the norm

81
Q

What is the consequence of ethnocentrism?

A

Other cultures judged against these standards + values of researcher -> prejudice + discrimination

82
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

Behaviour varies between cultures so can only be properly understood within specific social and cultural contexts
- sees all cultures as worthy of respect
- inappropriate to study one culture and generalise findings

83
Q

What does an etic approach do?

A

Identifies universal behaviours between cultures

84
Q

What does an emic approach do?

A

Identifies behaviours specific to cultures

85
Q

What is an example of the etic approach?

A

Buss, 33 countries to produce universal theory of mate preference

86
Q

What are 7 ways to reduce culture bias?

A

Representative sample
Reflexive approach
Immersion
Standards (don’t assume universal across cultures)
Be sensitive to norms when reporting findings
Emic/etic approach
Cross-cultural research

87
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of culture bias?

A

Most influential studies culturally biased, due to ethnocentrism
- Asch exclusively Americans (mostly white, middle class)
- replications show China (collectivist) more likely to conform than England individualist)
When behaviour studied in one culture, theories should only be applied to that culture

Negative consequences: discrimination + prejudice
- WW1 first intelligence test on 1.75 million army recruits
- many questions ethnocentric: eg naming US presidents
- recruits from SE Europe and African-Americans lowest scores, deemed mentally unfit and unintelligent
- denied educational + professional opportunities
Avoiding cultural bias matters to reduce discrimination + prejudice, and rather explain real differences in theories

88
Q

What is a counter/strength to influential studies being culturally biased?

A

Increasing globalisation means individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies
- traditional argument suggests individualist cultures value independence and collectivist value interdependence
- as society develops, increased interconnectedness between cultures and in 14/15 studies comparing US-Japan, distinction doesn’t apply (too simplistic)
Integration means cultural bias less of an issue, psychologists can move away from I/C categorisations

89
Q

What is social sensitivity?

A

Research and theories which have potential implications or consequences, such as prejudice and discrimination

90
Q

What are ethical implications?

A

Impact or consequences that research and theories have on the rights/wellbeing of…

Participants who took part in the study
Group of people represented by the reseatch
Changes at a societal level

91
Q

What are the 4 ways to reduce the negative consequences from socially sensitive research?

A
  1. Aim of investigation doesn’t misrepresent certain groups: must consider research question carefully as phasing may influence the how findings are interpreted
  2. Consider the design and methodology: CBA, informed consent for trauma, consider treatment during and after, submit research proposals to ethics committees + abide by recommendations, ensuring ethics met
  3. Institutional context: ensure data isn’t misused/misunderstood/ misinterpreted, should know purpose of research and intended use
  4. Interpretation + application of findings in RW: avoid prejudicial/biased representations of findings, consider if findings used for other unintended purposes or to inform policy
92
Q

What is a strength of socially sensitive research?

A

Benefits on group represented + society
- DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disorder
- eventually removed as a report of anonymous interview of >5000 men and 6000 women, concluding homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
- Loftus + Palmer, EWT for crime not completely accurate -> less wrongful convictions, development of more accurate cognitive interview
Important to tackle socially sensitive topics to reduce discrimination, SS research plays valuable role in society

93
Q

What is a weakness of socially sensitive research?

A

Negative consequences
- Burt showed intelligence was genetic, used 11+ exams to see if children can go to grammar school (influencing later life opportunities)
- but fraudulent, as IQ affected by experience
- still used today, disadvantaging lots of children due to flawed assessments
- in 1920s USA, IQ also seen as genetic so those with low IQ sterilised
If findings in socially sensitive research invalid, can have negative enduring effects

94
Q

What is the overall view on whether socially sensitive research should be carried out (AO3)?

A

All research goes through ethics committee which conducts CBA
BUT still challenging to predict how the findings will affect people/society

A-level Psychology (11 decks)

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