Social Construction Flashcards
Define the term social construction
something that has been made or defined by society, rather than simply occurring naturally
Define Polygamy
Polygamy is the practice of having more than one wife or one husband at the same time
Define Polygyny
Polygyny - where a man may take two or more wives
Define Polyandry
Where a women may take two or more husbands
How many countries is polygyny legal in
58 countries
Where is Polyandry confined to be legal?
Handful of societies, mainly in the himalayas
In what societies is polygamy mainly legal in?
Mainly in Muslim-majority countries
In what 5 multi-cultural countries is Polygamous marriages allowed?
India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Sri Lanka
In what 2 Muslim countries is polygamy a crime?
Turkey and Tunisia
What are the restrictions on polygamy in the UK
In the UK, anyone who goes through a marriage ceremony whilst married to someone else, is committing the crime of Bigamy
What is the outcome of committing bigamy?
Punishable by up to 7 years imprisonment, a fine or both
How many wives does the Qur’an permit muslim men to have
4 wives
Until what year in the US, did the Mormon Church practice polygamy
1980, yet it is still practiced by some Mormon splinter groups
Where was polygamy traditionally practiced
In some African countries, although it has declined in recent decades
Define Adultery
involves a sexual act between 2 people, one or both of whom is married to another person
What religion majority countries criminalise adultery?
Muslim-majority
Where is adultery a crime?
In several Christian-countries in Africa, the Philippines, Taiwan and 21 US states
What punishments can you expect from committing adultery
Stoning to death, caning (occurs in Malaysia and Indonesia) to a fine (Rhode Island, US)
What year did adultery cease to be a crime in India
2018
Where is adultery a crime
the UK and India, since 2018
between what religions is not committing adultery one of the ten commandments
Judaism, Muslim and Christianity
where has adultery mostly been seen as a crime
Where law making has been strongly influenced by religion
Define homosexuality
sexual acts between members of the same sex are treated as crimes in a number of countries
How many countries is male homosexuality seen as a crime?
72 countries
In how many countries is women homosexuality seen as a crime
45 countries
In how many countries can homosexuality conviction lead to the death penalty?
6 countries
What country is homosexuality not seen as a crime, but the law bans ‘promotion’
Russia
In many countries which do not criminalise homosexuality, what do they do instead?
They do not allow same sex couples to marry or adopt
What countries is homosexuality legal?
In the UK, Europe, North and South America
In what Muslim state is homosexuality legal
Indonesia, which is the worlds largest Muslim-populated country
In what religions is homosexuality condemned
Christianity, Islam, Judaism
Why are some countries more likely to have homosexuality a crime?
Where there is a strong influence of religion over law-making
What did polls done by the Pew Research Centre disover?
higher levels of support for bans on homosexuality
Why is male homosexuality more a crime in many countries than female homosexuality?
due to sexist assumptions made by law makers that women were incapable of same sex attraction
is personal use, growing, Importing or supplying usually seen as more lenient of carrying cannabis
Personal use is because usually smaller amounts
What are the punishments in the UK for if you are caught possessing cannabis
Possession - up to 5 years imprisonment
What is the punishment in the UK if you are caught supplying cannabis
up to 14 years imprisonment
How are sentences for possession typically handed out
often will be a fine or discharge
What uses is cannabis legalised for in some countries?
possession for legalised recreational use or medical use
What countries have legalised the sale of cannabis
Canada and Uruguay
In societies with a greater emphasis on individual freedoms, what are the views on drug use
seen as victimless or as an individual’s right to do as they wish with their body
What do some societies lawmakers think the best way to stop drug use is?
criminal penalties even for possession of cannabis, which they see as the start of addiction to hard drugs such as heroin
What year was homosexual acts in the UK made a crime?
1885, with a maximum sentence of life imprisonment
What year was homosexual acts between males aged 21 or over legalised in the UK
England and Wales - 1967
Scotland - 1980
Northern Ireland - 1982
what homosexual act was legalised in 1994?
the age of consent lowered to 18
What year was heterosexuals at 16 made legal
2000
In what country and year did the British Empire make homosexuality a crime
India - 1861
In what year did India’s supreme court rule homosexuality no longer an offence?
2018
After what major incident in the world was there an increase in gay men prosecutions?
the second world war
by 1954, how many gay men were in prison
1000
Who did the government set up a committee under to consider reform of the law?
Sir John Wolfenden
Who did Sir John Wolfenden’s committee gather evidence on?
The police, Psychiatrists, religious leaders and gay men
In 1967, what did Sir John Wolfenden’s committee recommend
that homosexual acts in private between consenting adults over 21 to be legalised
what did the Homosexual Law Reform Society campaign for
change in the law that legalised gay sex in 1967
What did the Stonewall and the Campaign for homosexual equality eventually lead to?
equalising the age of consent to 16
what politician supported the campaign for change?
Roy jenkins
Roy Jenkins, as home secretary, introduced necessary legislation in what year
1967
what did the 2010 equality act introduce?
outlaws discrimination of grounds of sexual orientation
Why did India’s supreme court rule that homosexuality should no longer be a crime?
they concluded that the state had no right to control citizens’ private lives
In what year in Portugal was possession of drugs law changed from a crime to a civil offence?
2001
What was the maximum quantity that someone had to have on them to be classed as possession in Portugal?
if the quantity involved was less than a 10 day supply, this included both hard and soft drugs
from what years had Portugal been ruled by a right-wing dictatorship
1930s until 1975
What did the right wing dictatorship class Portugal as
a closed and strictly regulated society
What things were banned/you needed a licence for in Portugal during the dictatorship
Coca cola was banned and you needed a licence for a cigarette lighter
In what year did the Portuguese revolution
1975
After the Portuguese revolution was happened?
An influx in drug led to Portugal having the highest rates of heroin addictions in Europe as well as soaring HIV/AIDs infections
What was the thinking behind decriminalising drug use in portugal
drug use should be regarded as a public health issue aimed at harm reduction rather than an issue for the criminal justice system
What was the thinking behind decriminalising drug use in portugal
drug use should be regarded as a public health issue aimed at harm reduction rather than an issue for the criminal justice system
Since the decriminalising of drugs in Portugal, what has happened
drug use has sharply fallen, HIV infections are almost non-existent and deaths from drugs are now the lowest in Europe
What is the difference in deaths from drugs between Portugal and the UK
Portugal - 4 per million of the population
UK - 44 per million
What did Michael Ryan do
shot and killed 16 people in Hungerford, Berkshire
What year did Michael Ryan commit the murders
1987
What did Thomas Hamilton do
shot 16 children and one teacher at Dunblane primary school near Stirling, Scotland
What were the weapons that Thomas Hamilton and Michael Ryan used
Several semi-automatics capable of rapidly firing multiple rounds, were legally held
What year was the law in the UK tightened against gun control
1997 following a government enquiry led by a senior former judge, Lord Cullen
What did John Major’s conservative government introduce relating to gun laws
an act banning all handguns except .22 single shot weapons
After labours victory in the general election, what did Tony Blair’s government introduce
a second firearms act banning the remaining handguns aswell
What weapons are still allowed in the UK
Historic or sporting weapons
Who was the Gun Control Network set up by?
lawyers, academics and parents of the victims to campaign for tighter gun control laws
Who was involved in the Snow Drop campaign?
Started by grieving Dunblane parents and their friends, organised a petition and collection 750,000 signatures calling for a change in the law
what was the minimum age in the 19th century that children were used in cotton mills, coalmines and other industries
children as young as six
what year was a basic education for all introduced
1880, also kept children out of factories
what did the 2004 children act do
Made the child’s welfare the fundamental principle underpinning the work of agencies such as social service
what does the United Nations Convention on the rights of children (1989) do
Enforced basic rights such as entitlement to healthcare and education, protection from abuse and the right to participate in decisions that affect them, such as custody cases
What were the consequences for capital punsihment
Execution by hanging, not just for murder but for less serious crimes as well
What was the 1723 black act
made over 50 offences of theft and poaching into capital crimes
What were the consequences of corporal punishment
Included Fogging, Birching (caning), branding with hot irons and being put in the stocks
In what year was capital punishment abolished in Britian
1965
in what year was flogging abolished in the armed forces
1881
What year was all corporal punishment of offenders abolished
1967
What does Norbert Elias argue about how the physical punishment law has changed over time
society bas undergone a ‘civilising process’ over the last 500 years
What were those convicted of relatively minor offences during the 2011 riots more likely to be sentenced
more likely to receive custodial sentences rather than similar cases committed under normal conditions
What did Chambliss study?
2 groups of youths, the middle-class and the working class
What did Chambliss find out
while both groups committed offences, the police enforced the law more strictly against the Roughnecks
Who does Chambliss’s research support?
Cicourel
What did Cicourel argue
police officers hold typifications - ideas about what a typical criminal is about
What did Briar and Pilivin find
They found that ‘situational factors’ play a large part in police officers’ decisions to stop or arrest a person
What did piliavin and Briars argument include about the polices judgement
Individuals class, ethnicity, age, attitude towards the officer, and place and time of day or night.
What is meant by the age of criminal responsability
the age at which a child is deemed to not understand the full menaing of the act they have committed and so cannot be held responsible
What is the age of criminal responsibility in the UK?
England, Wales and Northern Ireland - 10
Scotland - 12
What is the act where an individual can plead not guilty even if they have killed someone?
The homicide act 1957
What is the official term for if an individual is ‘mentally ill’ so they don’s understand their actions
Diminished Responsibility
What is the official term for when an individual pleads less guilty to potentially lower their sentence to manslaughter
Loss of control
What is the official term for if an individual can prove that they were not in full control of their body at the time of the murder
Automatism
