Social Behaviour

Question 1

Define social behaviour per animal behaviourists. What behaviours are included in this definition?

Answer 1

Interactions between two or more individuals of same species in which one or more benefit.

Includes courtship and mating behaviour, parental behaviour.

Question 2

List the four categories of social behaviour.

Answer 2

Sexual behaviour.

Parental and alloparental care.

Agonistic behaviour: aggression, submission.

Affiliative behaviour: includes play.

Question 3

Care-giving, altruistic behaviours are what? Care-soliciting behaviours?

Answer 3

Epimeletic.

Et-epimeletic.

Question 4

Doing the same thing as other individuals (e.g., schooling in fish), is known as what behaviour?

Answer 4

Allelomimetic.

Question 5

List the five types of bonds in social behaviours.

Answer 5

Parent-offspring (persistent).

Sibling-sibling.

Female-female.

Male-male.

Male-female.

Question 6

If we keep the pair (dyad) as a unit, and we have a group of n animals, we get into many potential relationships. What is the equation for this?

Answer 6

n(n-1)/2

Question 7

Poole (1985) determined 9 factors of mammalian social organization. List them.

Answer 7

Mating strategy: degree of male/female choice.

Gregariousness (continuum).

Intolerance: towards same or different sex; degree of competitiveness.

Affectional bonds: duration of mother-offspring bond.

Complexity of communication.

Inbreeding avoidance.

Group mobility.

Fecundity (# of young per female per unit of time) and longevity (long life = more complex sociality).

Ecological factors.

Question 8

Gregariousness is defined by Poole (1985) to be part of a continuum, ranging between what four parts?

Answer 8

Solitary.

Aggregations for survival (temporary grouping of individuals; not necessarily of same species).

Group permanence and identity (“gregarious”)

Personal relationships within group (“social group” or “society”).

Question 9

Long life = more complex social organization. This explains the difference between what two animals in social sophistication and play behaviour?

Answer 9

Mice and rats.

Question 10

Classification of mammalian social organization (Poole, 1985) is based on what three things?

Answer 10

Sociability.

Sexual strategy (mating system).

Territoriality.

Question 11

List four specific advantages for social carnivores.

Answer 11

Cooperative hunting; coordinated hunting.

Cooperative protection of carcasses.

Reduced risk of hunting-related injuries.

Cooperative defence against predators.

Question 12

Bernstein’s social role theory is based on what? What is required, and how did the theory develop?

Answer 12

Social function of individuals, i.e., division of labour.

Polyethism (behavioural polymorphism).

Observations that individual differences between individuals in group not necessarily determined by competition for resources.

Question 13

Social roles can be restricted to what four categories? Can the distribution of any of these roles change with time?

Answer 13

Age group.

Sex.

Specific rank (overlap with the rank/status approach).

Specific body type (castes).

Change with time in 1, 2, 3.

Question 14

Gartland (1968) discovered what three things about the distribution of roles (7 defined) in vervet monkeys?

Answer 14

Territorial behaviour and interference in agonistic interactions performed mainly by one adult male.

Friendly approaches and subjects of these approaches mainly adult females.

Leading behaviour: adult males and females.

Question 15

Do group selection theory and kin selection theory support social role theory? Are there similar theories in other fields?

Answer 15

Group selection: supports.

Kin selection: does not. Useful to describe and analyse functional organization of group, but not adaptive significance of individual behaviours within groups.

Role theory in social psychology: role conflict, role confusion.

Question 16

Agonism refers to what principle? Define it.

Answer 16

Antithesis principle of Darwin - the opposition of two extremes of an action continuum: aggression (as attack or fight) and submission (as appeasement or retreat) in a situation of conflict.

Question 17

Agonistic behaviour includes, in a continuum, regardless of the “offensive” or “defensive” nature of the initial behaviour, what four things?

Answer 17

Attack (fight).

Threat.

Appeasement.

Escape (flight).

Question 18

Define agonistic behaviour. What is it based on and what is important to note?

Answer 18

Hierarchy of behavioural patterns (aggressive or submissive) used during a conflict with a conspecific.

Based on set of species-specific social rules. Does not always lead to reciprocity.

Question 19

Aggressive or submissive acts include what three things?

Answer 19

Movements (“actions or acts”; visual/haptic messages).

Vocalizations (auditory messages).

Scent-marking (olfactory messages).

Question 20

Define aggression.

Answer 20

Behaviour intended to inflict injury/damage/pain/ discomfort or fear.

Question 21

Aggression describes what, whereas aggressiveness describes what?

Answer 21

An action; a predisposition (individual tendency) or a disposition (internal state).

Question 22

One must consider whether it is aggressiveness or one of what three things?

Answer 22

Fear/anxiety levels (in the case of defensive behaviour or aggressive defence).

Frustration leading to hostility.

Overreaction to threat (based on perception & interpretation of threat).

Question 23

Define submission. What is the difference between submission and submissiveness? What are other related behaviours?

Answer 23

Behaviour intended to appease in order to avoid/escape aggression.

Submission is action, submissiveness predisposition or disposition.

Ignoring; freezing.

Question 24

Sometimes, an agonistic behaviour will have the same form in two different situations but a different function. What are the four things to consider?

Answer 24

Form: pattern of the aggressive-submissive act (i.e., done how?)

Cause: what caused and regulates the aggressive-submissive acts (i.e., why?).

Function: function (adaptive, instrumental) of the aggressive-submissive act (i.e., what for?).

Consequences: what effect (i.e., what happened?).

Question 25

Define dispositional factors versus situational factors. What can these factors change the probability of?

Answer 25

Dispositional (individual): internal to individual, intrinsic dispositions.

Situational (contextual): external to individual, extrinsic variables.

Change probability of aggression versus submission.

Question 26

What are the dispositional factors?

Answer 26

Biological-physiological: sex, age, hormonal status.

Personality-temperament: activity-reactivity, emotionality, sociability (aggressiveness, submissiveness, etc.).

Question 27

What are the situational factors?

Answer 27

Competition (direct) for resources: food, mates, progeny, shelter, territory.

Competition for non-resources (or indirect competition for resources): rank status in dominance hierarchies, “roles” in eusocial animals.

Question 28

List the three psychological processes involved in agonistic behaviour.

Answer 28

Conative: motivational factors.

Affective: (socio-)emotional factors.

Cognitive: perceptual and decisional factors. Social intelligence.

Question 29

Dominance takes place in the context of dominance hierarchies with what two requirements?

Answer 29

Individual recognition, necessary social information processing (social perception, memory).

Interactional learning: learning from previous social experiences.

Question 30

Barnett’s terminology, based on Schneirla’s (1965, 1966) approach-withdrawal theory, includes treptic behaviours. What are they and what are the two specific ones?

Answer 30

Treptic behaviours (interactions): characterized by approach or withdrawal. Define the EFFECT or CONSEQUENCE of an action, not the INTENTION.

Apotreptic: causes a conspecific to withdraw.

Epitreptic: causes a conspecific to approach.

Question 31

What is an advantage of Barnett’s theory?

Answer 31

Makes no assumptions about the intention or the state of the actor.

Question 32

Barnett (1981) defines agonistic behaviour as what? What are other important effects of an individual’s behaviour on another animal?

Answer 32

Conduct associated with threat (apotreptic behaviour) and the responses to it.

Inhibition of activity; warning.

Question 33

Psychologists and ethologists agree on three intentions and contexts of aggression. What are they?

Answer 33

Hostile (emotional) versus instrumental aggression (Berkowitz; Hinde).

Annoyance-motivated versus incentive-motivated aggression (Zillmann).

Reactive versus proactive aggression (Dodge & Coie).

Question 34

Reactive aggression tends to be hostile or emotional and annoyance-motivated. What are three elements to this action?

Answer 34

Anger or frustration involved.

Impulsive.

In response to perceived provocation.

Question 35

Proactive aggression tends to be instrumental and incentive-motivated. What are three elements to this action?

Answer 35

Non-angry.

Planned.

Reward-centered, instrumental.

Question 36

Define the two types of self-defence or defensive behaviour (protection of property, territory, progeny).

Answer 36

Offensive aggression (unprovoked).

Defensive aggression (reciprocation).

Question 37

In socially sophisticated species, most aggressive behaviours are determined by what?

Answer 37

Rank or status.

Question 38

Describe intra-specific aggression versus inter-specific aggression.

Answer 38

Both usually for resources (food, territory, shelter, etc.), but mate-related aggression is exclusively intra-specific.

Question 39

Predatory behaviour is not considered “aggressive” although it is sometimes labelled _____.

Answer 39

Predatory aggression.

Question 40

What is redirected aggression and ambivalent behaviour? When does it occur?

Answer 40

Behaviours of substitution or redirected aggression.

Redirected to inanimate object or subordinate animal when initiator too strong, dangerous or unapproachable to be confronted directly.

Question 41

Aggression ≠ predation, per neuroethology. Elaborate on the differences.

Answer 41

Aggression: ANS arousal; involves ventro-medial hypothalamus and dorsal PAG; librium decreases and amphetamines increase.

Predation: calm; involves dorsolateral hypothalamus and ventral PAG; librium increases and amphetamines decrease.

Question 42

Aggression from a neuroscience perspective provides three pieces of basic behavioural neuroscience evidence. What are they?

Answer 42

Intrasexual aggression (typically male-male aggression).

Fear-induced or aversion-induced aggression.

Irritable aggression or frustration-induced aggression.

Question 43

Sociobiological models of aggression/dominance are based on what main model? What is a limitation?

Answer 43

Based on game theory; cost-benefit analysis of fighting, conative factors.

Applies to contests for 2 individuals only.

Question 44

Describe the hawk-dove game proposed by Maynard-Smith et al. What are the variation strategies?

Answer 44

Hawk: persistence up to injury; rule: always be aggressive/aggressor.

Dove: pretend, but retreat if opponent escalates; in other words, bluff, but retreat.

Bourgeois strategy: play hawk if territory holder, dove if not.

Anti-bourgeois strategy: play dove if territory holder, hawk if not.

Question 45

Describe the war of attrition game, its assumption, the intensity of conflict, and a limitation.

Answer 45

More flexible model, less dichotomous (i.e., fight OR flight).

Distribution of contest length related to value of the “object” (source) of the conflict.

Conflict’s intensities are mild (no severe injury).

No cues to settle a contest.

Question 46

Describe the sequential assessment game proposed by Enquist et al., what it’s similar to, and what it requires.

Answer 46

Opponents in continual sequential assessments of each other in “bouts.”

Similar to statistical sampling: many assessments lead to low error rates, leading to high confidence.

Requires more cognitive processing.

Question 47

What is the sequence in sequential assessment game?

Answer 47

Least dangerous behaviour used first.

Assessment is done.

Second least dangerous behaviour is used.

Assessment is done.

…Etc.

Question 48

Regarding sequential assessment, evenly matched opponents engage in what? What is this an excellent model for?

Answer 48

Engage in the most dangerous behaviours.

Outcome prediction; description of a full fighting sequence; identifying “giving-up” thresholds.

Question 49

There are four related phenomena to aggression. List them.

Answer 49

Winner effect: winning predicts more wins (typical of unambiguous hierarchies).

Loser effect: losing predicts more losses.

Bystander effect: learning by observing future opponents fight.

Audience effect: individuals that are watched can change or adjust behaviours.

Question 50

What are causal and functional aggressions?

Answer 50

Causal (how, why?): aggression is response to a stimulus.

Functional (what for?): aggression is solution to a problem - “proximate” (e.g., more food) to “ultimate” functions (e.g., reproductive suppression).

Question 51

List the three typologies of aggression, per Archer (1988).

Answer 51

Protective: in response to threat of physical attack.

Parental: in response to threat to young.

Competitive: in response to threat to status or access to resources.

Question 52

List the seven typologies of aggression, per Moyer (1968, 1976). What was discarded in 1976?

Answer 52

Predatory.

Intermale.

Fear-induced.

Irritable: labelled anger or rage.

Sex-related.

Parental (maternal or paternal).

Instrumental.

Territorial discarded due to being too context-dependent.

Question 53

List the three typologies of aggression, per Ramirez (1981, 1985).

Answer 53

Interspecific: defence against predators, interspecific competition; can be reactive.

Intraspecific: hostile behaviours, usually not leading to injuries. Often escape.

Indiscriminate: “reactive aggression” including defensive reactions, maternal and irritable aggression.

Question 54

List the two typologies of aggression, per Ramirez (1998).

Answer 54

Direct (physical character): offence (involving conspecifics), defence (reactive); irritable, indiscriminate: non-specific, reactive to any provocative stimulus.

Indirect: dominance displays (ritualised aggression); symbolic (human type).

Question 55

List the six typologies of aggression, per Wilson (1975).

Answer 55

Territorial.

Dominance.

Sexual.

Predatory, including cannibalism.

Antipredatory (defensive).

Parent-offspring.

Question 56

In Wilson’s typologies of aggression, parent-offspring aggression is partially influenced by what? What three things are then associated with it?

Answer 56

Trivers’ (1971, 1974) reciprocal altruism models.

Associated with weaning; disciplinary; “moralistic.”

Question 57

Regarding the ontogenesis of aggression, what are the environmental variables? Provide examples.

Answer 57

Prenatal and perinatal influences (e.g., undernutrition of pregnant mothers).

Learning and experience (e.g., social deprivation in mice increases aggressive behaviours).

Question 58

In a dominance hierarchy, the dominant animal controls subordinate animals. Dominance-based interactions can vary in what three things?

Answer 58

Frequency: of reversals, reciprocations, etc.

Duration: stand-offs vs. quick aggressive encounters.

Intensity.

Question 59

A dominance hierarchy is a system allowing the _____ of future outcomes of interactions by establishing _____ between individuals.

Answer 59

Prediction; ranks.

Question 60

The structure and dynamic of a dominance hierarchy depends on what four things?

Answer 60

Stability of the group.

Size of the group.

Individuals involved (temperaments, ranks, etc.).

External factors such as availability of resources (mates, food, etc.).

Question 61

Schjelderup-Ebbe (1922) was the first to describe pecking order in chickens. He identified two types of hierarchies. What were they?

Answer 61

Peck-right hierarchies: all aggressions go from dominant animal to subordinate.

Peck-dominance hierarchies: majority of aggressions go from dominant to subordinate.

Question 62

What is the asymmetry criteria for dominance hierarchies?

Answer 62

Asymmetry should be found in the interactions (A dominant over B most of the time, i.e., over 50% of the time). Translates into uni-directionality of interactions.

Question 63

If A is dominant over B, C and D, a special partnership between B and C can establish a dominance over A and D. What is this behaviour called and where is it common?

Answer 63

Coalition: can reverse “directionality” of hierarchy.

Common in primates.

Question 64

_____ are long-lasting (more permanent) than coalitions.

Answer 64

Alliances.

Question 65

What are the three types of hierarchies?

Answer 65

Species-specific (even within a taxon): African green monkey has little or no dominance hierarchy; Vervet monkey has pronounced linear hierarchy.

Resource specific.

Population specific.

Question 66

Christian and Davis showed that low-ranking animals have higher levels of what than dominants do? What are the short-term and long-term implications of this?

Answer 66

Glucocorticoids.

Short term: benefit; prepares for fight or flight responses.

Long term: cost; reduction in antigen-antibody and inflammatory response, reduction in levels of reproductive hormones

Question 67

The Sapolsky (1991, 1992) baboon studies found what about the following things:

• stable dominance hierarchies (few rank reversals)
• unstable dominance hierarchies
• highly stressed males
• stable groups
• subordinate animals

Answer 67

Dominant animals have lower levels of plasma cortisol.

Absolute rank is not a good predictor of stress levels.

Low testosterone levels including dominant males in unstable hierarchies.

Cortisol levels similar between low and high-ranking males.

More sensitive to stressful events.

Question 68

Many authors suggest that alpha males or females are not actual “leaders”. What is evidence for this?

Answer 68

Often stop fights (primates), protect group from external threats and stay away from conflicts.

Question 69

Bernstein (1964, 1966) suggests that the alpha animals have what role? What theory is this based on? Similar observations with wolves suggest that the dominant animals are not often initiators, but rather what?

Answer 69

Control role.

Social role theory.

Monitors.