Reproductive Behaviour, Mating Systems and Parental Behaviour Flashcards
What are the three classifications of reproduction?
Production of gamete: egg, sperm, or both.
Method of fertilization: Internal or external.
Method of production of the young: viviparity, ovoviviparity, oviparity, etc.
What are the three modes of reproduction?
Monochoristic: separate male and female individuals.
Hermaphroditic mode: individuals have both eggs and sperm.
Parthenogenetic: all individuals have ovaries, no fertilization necessary.
In parthenogenesis, all individuals have only ovaries and produce only eggs (“virgin birth”). Provide two examples of parthenogenic animals.
Top minnow; mole salamander.
In some cases of parthenogenesis, sperm is not required for complete and normal development. Provide an example.
Whiptail lizard: only females, engage in mock mating. No males means cloning of females.
In some cases of parthenogenesis, sperm is necessary, yet what? Provide an example of an animal.
Sperm’s genome not included into genome of the young.
E.g., Amazon molly.
Define maternal, paternal, and alloparental care.
Maternal: performed by mother (or by extension of another female).
Paternal: performed by father (or by extension of another male), mostly associated with monogamy.
Alloparental: care from kin other than mother or father.
What is parental investment? What can it cause?
Extent to which parents compromise ability to produce additional offspring in order to assist current offspring.
Increases chances of survival and reproduction in current offspring, may result in conflict of interest between parent and offspring.
What is reproductive effort? What are drawbacks to it?
Energy, time investment, risk taken for breeding.
May reduce reproductive success of the individual; time and energy often increase vulnerability to predators.
Describe how rhesus monkeys exemplify the parental experience hypothesis. What are the survival rates for their young?
Mothering seems to require a learning process.
Lose their infant 55% of the time.
Survival rate stabilizes after the 3rd one: 78% survival rate after 6 months; 4th: 91% survival after 6 months.
What are three main theories of parental care?
Parental provision model, conflict model, symbiosis model (mutualism).
According to Richard Alexander (1974), who should be favoured per conflict theory? What is the priority? How are observations made?
Parents.
Parental fitness priority through “parental manipulation.”
Observations based on increase (“intensity”) of conflict.
Per the conflict theory, with time the cost is higher for the mother. Provide an example with cats.
1-20 days: mother initiates nursing.
20-30 days: equal initiation.
30+ days: only the kittens initiate.
List five issues with the conflict theory.
Mathematical models do not confirm Alexander’s view.
Difficult to measure intensity; “intensity” may not be best measure of conflict.
Look at species with one parent involved, with one litter/year.
Does not account for multiple paternity or paternal care.
Does not account for sibling competition and fratricide.
What is symbiosis theory, per Alberts & Gubernick?
Bidirectional exchange (“transactional”).
Studies looking at urogenital licking by mothers in rats found what? What happened when water was given?
Pup urine source of water for mother; mother gets 2/3 of water passed to pups by her milk (73% water).
Water not enough. The urine is source of electrolytes (salts).
Describe the certainty of paternity hypothesis (50% of a father’s gene in offspring). When is paternity most uncertain? What is another factor?
If high, will care for young, won’t if not.
Most uncertain in species with internal fertilization: more paternity should be observed in species with external fertilization, more maternal with internal.
Mating system: monogamous species show more paternal care.
Describe the gamete order hypothesis. What is a major limitation?
Last parent to release gametes gives parental care, favours desertion of offspring.
Major limitation is fertilization mode (internal or external). Internal is rule for mammals, females care more by default. External is rule for amphibians and fish, males tend to care more.
Describe the association or proximity hypothesis. What limitation applies? What does it suggest about males?
Proximity of adults and offspring determines parental behaviour.
Internal-external fertilization limitation applies.
Territorial males = paternal. Territoriality guarantees proximity.
Describe the gamete order hypothesis. What is a major limitation?
Last parent to release gametes gives parental care, favours desertion of offspring.
Major limitation is fertilization mode (internal or external). Internal is rule for mammals, females care more by default. External is rule for amphibians and fish, males tend to care more.
Describe the association or proximity hypothesis. What limitation applies? What does it suggest about males?
Proximity of adults and offspring determines parental behaviour.
Internal-external fertilization limitation applies.
Territorial males = paternal. Territoriality guarantees proximity.
Paternal care is rare in what and common in what?
Rare in fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals.
Common in birds, although often in context of biparental care.
Which reptilians demonstrate 100% paternal care? Which represent the least?
Crocodylians.
Turtles.
List six criteria of paternal care defined in amphibians and reptiles.
Nest creation and nest attendance
Nest or egg guarding.
Egg, larval, hatchlings, froglet transport.
Egg brooding.
Feeding the young.
Guarding or attending the young.
Describe the gamete order hypothesis. What is a major limitation?
Last parent to release gametes gives parental care, favours desertion of offspring.
Major limitation is fertilization mode (internal or external). Internal is rule for mammals, females care more by default. External is rule for amphibians and fish, males tend to care more.
Describe the association or proximity hypothesis. What limitation applies? What does it suggest about males?
Proximity of adults and offspring determines parental behaviour.
Internal-external fertilization limitation applies.
Territorial males = paternal. Territoriality guarantees proximity.
Paternal care is rare in what and common in what?
Rare in fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals.
Common in birds, although often in context of biparental care.
Which reptilians demonstrate 100% paternal care? Which represent the least?
Crocodylians.
Turtles.
List six criteria of paternal care defined in amphibians and reptiles.
Nest creation and nest attendance
Nest or egg guarding.
Egg, larval, hatchlings, froglet transport.
Egg brooding.
Feeding the young.
Guarding or attending the young.
Northern Jacana females demonstrate typical male bird attributes. What are they? What are attributes of males?
Females: polyandrous, responsible for territory protection, dominant role in courtship, large size.
Males: small size, build nests, incubation/brooding, defence of chicks.
Alloparental care can also be referred to as what?
“Allomothering” or “aunting” when females are involved.
When is alloparental care most frequent?
Cooperative breeders (mammals living in extended “families”) in monogamous species or matrilineal polygynous species.
Alloparental care can potentially serve what two functions per the kin selection theory and parental experience theory?
Kin selection theory: non-breeding individuals take care of individuals of own “family” (i.e., individuals sharing genes).
Parental experience theory: gives them experience for when they become parents.
What are helpers? Who are usually helpers? What is it dependent on?
Kin helping to raise the young. Usually females. Often sporadic, depending on resource availability.
