Play

Question 1

Play has, until recently, been considered the “black sheep” of ethology. Why is this? What areas pertain to the topic today?

Answer 1

Few good, convincing “adaptive” or “functional” theories of play. Function of behaviour not obvious, no clear immediate gains.

Developmental ethology, developmental animal (comparative) psychology.

Question 2

Define the animals of interest for the following researchers:

• Caro
• Bekoff
• Loeven
• Heinrich
• Pellis
• Biben/Altmann
• Panksepp/Burghardt

Answer 2

Caro: felids (cheetahs)

Bekoff: canids (dogs, coyotes)

Loeven: canids (wolves)

Heinrich: corvids (ravens)

Pellis: murids (rats)

Biben/Altmann: primates

Panksepp/Burghardt: behavioural neuroscience of play.

Question 3

Bekoff offers the most “classical ethology” definition around. What does it focus on, what kind of definition is it, and what issues does it share with aggression?

Answer 3

Focuses on motor patterns and action sequences.

Structural definition, focuses on form rather than function.

Definitions and typologies based on cause, form or function.

Question 4

The study of play involves discovering the triad of the mind. Define it.

Answer 4

Cognitive dimension (e.g., strategy, exploration).

Conative (motivational) dimension (e.g., stress reduction).

Affective (emotional) dimension (e.g., pleasure).

Question 5

In fish, play is not correlated with what?

Answer 5

Phylogeny or sociality.

Question 6

The elephant nose fish is notable because? What kind of play may fish partake in?

Answer 6

Largest cerebellum of all vertebrates.

Object play, social play.

Question 7

Play is very common in social and most non-social mammals, given it is part of the developmental program. Provide two examples of animals in which it is quite common.

Answer 7

Solitary felids and ursids (bears).

Question 8

Describe the differences in play between lab rats and mice.

Answer 8

Rat pups play socially, mouse pups don’t.

Question 9

What issue may differentiate social carnivores with non-social carnivores.

Answer 9

Is play present in adulthood?

Question 10

List the four types of play.

Answer 10

Object (instrumental) play: ≠ object exploration (novelty effects)

Social (subject) play: contact (e.g., biting) vs. non-contact (e.g., stalking): Caro, 1995.

Locomotor play: play chasing (social) and solitary: Power, 2000.

Inter-specific play: one or two way? (humans and dogs; ravens and wolves).

Question 11

Provide a definition for locomotor play and describe its function.

Answer 11

Seemingly random actions often with no obvious environmental triggers, typically spontaneous.

Functions: development of motor skills, cerebellar signatures; development of environmental knowledge.

Question 12

Who said, “Refining the motor training hypothesis for the evolution of play”?

Answer 12

Byers and Walker (1995).

Question 13

Describe the three functions of social play.

Answer 13

Physical skills: e.g., fighting, hunting, mating.

Formation of social bonds.

Development of (socio-)cognitive skills: useful for future coalition formation; self-assessment of own development.

Question 14

Describe the role of sexual play.

Answer 14

Common in many mammals and is considered “practice”; essential in many primates for normal sexual behaviour.

Question 15

List three ways in which play markers signal intention to play.

Answer 15

Frequency, intensity and order of events in play bouts are different from other behaviours.

Play markers: e.g., play bow in canids (arched back, head low, behind high).

Role reversal or self-handicapping: e.g., an adult letting a younger animal take dominant role.

Question 16

Biben (1998) found three cognitive benefits of play fighting in squirrel monkeys (and other species). What are they?

Answer 16

Behavioural flexibility.

Gauging intentions of others.

Learning about social hierarchies.

Question 17

Spinka’s general theory of play denotes what five things?

Answer 17

Experience with unexpected events with loss of control.

Physical and emotional experience.

Play has a neuropharmacological impact: endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine.

Locomotor play more frequent in species living in variable (unpredictable) environments.

Sexual dimorphism in play acts (i.e., polyethism) increases with time.

Question 18

List three proximate causes of play.

Answer 18

Dopamine: facilitator of play, or “primer” for play. Similar role in sexual behaviour.

Endorphins: play feels good, similar role in sexual behaviour.

Play = coping with stress.

Question 19

Play in wolves and squirrel monkeys = low _____.

Answer 19

Stress hormones (cortisol).

Question 20

Who said, “In a sense, play is an index of youthful health.”

Answer 20

Panksepp.

Question 21

What are neuropharmacological ways to increase play in a non-playful adult animal?

Answer 21

None are clear; cannabinoids speculated.

Question 22

Panksepp sees play as what?

Answer 22

A behavioural mean: play deprivation will increase play in rodents.

Question 23

Social isolation with increase play-seeking behaviour in rats, but will decrease it in what?

Answer 23

Primates.

Question 24

Biben and Champoux (1999) found cortisol as a negative correlate of play in _____.

Answer 24

Saimiri.

Question 25

In Panksepp’s neurochemistry of play, list play arousing neurochemicals and play suppressing neurochemicals.

Answer 25

Arousing: acetylcholine; glutamate; opioids (e.g., beta-endorphins) low dose; dopamine low dose.

Suppressing: serotonin; norepinephrine; GABA; opioids (e.g., beta-endorphins) high dose; dopamine high dose; neuropeptides: oxytocin, CRH.

Question 26

Burghardt’s take on play suggests what? How does he define it?

Answer 26

Correlated with parental care and behaviour (e.g., no parental care = no play).

Repeated, incomplete functional behaviour differing from more adaptive versions; initiated voluntarily when in relaxed or unstressed setting.

Question 27

What are the five criteria to recognize play?

Answer 27

Not completely functional (no obvious direct, immediate benefits).

Endogenous component: spontaneous, voluntary, intentional, pleasurable, rewarding, autotelic (for its own sake).

Structural/temporal difference: not “serious”; incomplete, exaggerated, awkward, precocious; behaviour patterns with modified form, sequencing or targeting.

Repeated: repetitions or perseverations of motor patterns, some stereotypy, but some flexibility as well.

Relaxed field: initiated when the animal is “well” (not ill, not stressed, not hungry, etc.).

Question 28

Describe the three other global theories of play.

Answer 28

Fagen, 1974: sequences of play similar to genetic systems: recombination, fragmentation, translocation, and duplication.

Sutton-Smith, 1999: play = random process generator. Play is not really “random”; some boundaries.

MacLean, 1985: triune brain; play emerges from “family life” (link to parental care). Play is linked to the limbic system = mammalian.

Question 29

In terms of play:

Limbic system = \_\_\_\_\_
Cerebellum = \_\_\_\_\_
Basal ganglia = \_\_\_\_\_
Neocortex = \_\_\_\_\_
Neocortex X basal ganglia = \_\_\_\_\_

Answer 29

Emotional aspect.

Motor aspect.

Motor (emotional/motivational) aspect.

Sensorimotor and cognitive aspect - 1) prefrontal, 2) premotor, 3) motor cortices.

Motor-cognitive.