Social Behaviour Flashcards
Define social behaviour
Social behaviour = behaviour associated with interactions between conspecifics (and allospecifics)
Why is social behaviour more relevant for groups of animals instead of solitary animals?
Social behaviour allows groups to function
This is not to say that solitary animals don’t interact but it’s less frequent
Mechanisms of social behaviour are what allows groups to function
Give examples of animal groups
Small family groups where all individuals know each other
Massive crowds that are little more than aggregations of individuals together
Lots of explanations for why animals live in groups is related to cooperative behaviour where there can be mutual benefits with working together
Define cooperative behaviour
Cooperative behaviour = behaviour providing benefit to another and selected upon due to benefit (at least partly)
Give an example of cooperative behaviour
Kin selection
Explain what kin selection is
Kin selection is a cooperative behaviour between relatives
With Kin selection, helping out your family members can actually increase your own fitness
For kin selection to occur you need heritable altruistic behaviour because it needs to be selected upon to increase fitness
Siblings share half of the same DNA
So if you help raise 2 of your siblings offspring that has the same fitness as if you raised 1 yourself
Also if the animal breeds itself at a later date it will have gained offspring rearing experience and learned how to do it from other individuals
For kin selection to work Hamilton’s rule must be in affect
What is Hamilton’s rule?
Hamilton’s rule = Benefits to the relative’s chances of successful reproduction must outweigh cost to aiders own reproductive success
What is mutually beneficial cooperation?
Mutually beneficial cooperation is cooperation between animals that aren’t related
What are the 2 types of mutually beneficial cooperation and explain what they mean?
1) Intra-specific mutualism
Intra-specific mutualism is where cooperation generates immediate shared synergistic benefits exceeding costs
2) Reciprocal altruism
Reciprocal altruism is where there’s an exchange of resources/services with temporary net costs exceeded by later benefits
Reciprocal altruism will be more likely to occur in stable social groups where the individuals meet often and spend long periods of time together
If they don’t meet often then it can be easy to cheat the system
Cases where reciprocal altruism are most likely to occur are when there’s quick reciprocation to avoid cheating or exploitation
You need to be careful at looking at mutually beneficial cooperation because some cooperative behaviour can be explained by manipulation or as a by-product
Explain this
Manipulation may occur where a dominant individual coerce subordinate individuals to help them increase or avoid costs to fitness
This manipulation comprises the subordinate animals fitness while increasing the dominant animals fitness with no return of the benefits
Some cooperative behaviour may be a result of accidental cooperative behaviour
An example is that a subordinate animal will stay near a dominant animal and groom them to avoid harassment from other individuals
What 4 things does fake cooperative behaviour do?
1) Not designed to assist a partner
2) Have no reciprocity
3) Offer immediate benefits for 1 party
4) Possibly unequal in cost
True or false
Even though there are costs associated to fitness due to the fake cooperative behaviour the overall fitness outcomes of being in a group may outweigh the associated costs
True
What are the 3 benefits of group living in the context of feeding?
1) Food detection
2) Prey capture
3) Food protection
True or false
There is a trade off between group size and the amount of food available
True
Explain what is the by-product of group living in terms of feeding
A by-product of group living is that communal roosts/nesting sites may act as ‘information centres’
This means that individuals who are less successful at food detection can wait at these information centres and then follow a more successful individual
This may seem like a cost to the successful individual but there are some benefits such as:
- mutual benefits associated with predation
- cost of successful individual can be relatively low if food source in large
- Some species can judge when it’s best to share
How can group living aid in prey capture?
Predators work in groups to capture bigger prey items which would be unavailable or too dangerous for a solitary hunter
Also if a group of predators attack a prey item or a herd of them it can increase prey panic leading to uncoordinated feeling
This makes it easier to pick off an individual prey item
What are the 6 benefits to group living in terms of predation risk?
1) Detection of predators
2) Dilution effect
3) Predator satiation/swamping effect
4) Selfish herd effect
5) Predator confusion
6) Defence against threat
True or false
The less individuals there are the less time an individual needs to be vigilant so they can spend more time foraging
False
The more individuals there are the less time an individual needs to be vigilant so they can spend more time foraging
In some species there are sentinels, what do they do?
Sentinels will look out for predators as the rest of the group forages and will alarm call when a predator is spotted
Why do animals take up the sentinel role?
Animals take up the sentinel role once they’re full and escape faster since they’re the first to see the predator
Also individuals take turns being sentinels
Why do animals take up the sentinel role?
Animals take up the sentinel role once they’re full and escape faster since they’re the first to see the predator
Also individuals take turns being sentinels
How is alarm calling good?
Alarm calling may seem like a cost to fitness since it attracts the predators attention to the individual calling
However it benefits the individual not alarm calling
Also if the individuals are related it increases the same genes in the population
It increases fitness if the individuals are related via kin selection
Explain the dilution effect in terms of predation risk?
The more individuals in a group the less chance each individual has of being picked off by a predator
So increased group size dilutes the risk of any one attack
This means that compared to a solitary individual your fitness is increased if you’re in a group assuming that the attack rate also does not increase with group size
Explain predator satiation/swamping effect in terms of predation risk?
If you’re group size is larger than the maximum intake the predator can consume then the predator is satiated before group size is decimated
In relation to dilution theory this method reduces the risk of predation even if there are multiple attacks
True or false
Predator satiation/swamping effect can act on how animals emerge after reproduction
An example is that mayfly emerge over a 2 week period in North America
True
Explain the selfish hers effect
The selfish hers effect benefits individuals instead of the whole group
It’s usually based on rank
So in groups, individuals in the middle of the group are safer
This is because a predator is more likely to pick out closer individuals which are on the outskirts of the group
Individuals will move to a safer position closer to the middle of the herd in order to avoid being predated
Individuals that do this are usually high ranking individuals
This increases the fitness of the high ranking individuals
Explain predator confusion in terms of predation risk
Large numbers of moving prey can impair predator targeting and capture of an individual
Some species enhance this with camouflage
Explain defence against threat in terms of predation risk
Some species will mob predators hunting by stealth
This undermines the predator as everyone can then see them
Also if the mob is attacking in a group then they have less chance of being injured if they’re distracting the predator and are all coordinating their attack
Defense against threat reduces fitness costs for each individual in that group as it reduces the chance of being injured or picked off
What are the 3 benefits of group living in terms of social learning and information exchange?
1) Learning from conspecifics
2) Sensitive period
3) Knowledge may be culturally held by groups
Give examples of how who an individual learns from affects information
The most important influence on young animals that learn from conspecifics is usually the maternal influence
Research also suggests that individuals may pay more attention to demonstrators of higher rank over those who are more successful
True or false
By learning from other individuals it can increase your own fitness as you learn things without the potentially risky trial and error
True
Explain what is meant by sensitive periods in terms of social learning and information exchange
With social learning there are periods throughout an animals life where specific learning has to occur
If that specific learning doesn’t occur that can impact on social behaviour and social interactions later in life
Give 2 examples of sensitive periods in terms of social learning and information exchange and explain what they are
1) Imprinting
This happens shortly after birth
Imprinting is where there is an attachment formed with a parent in order to increase the chances of survival and at the same time act as a template for future mating partners
2) Socialisation
Socialisation is where the animal has to have experiences of other animals of the same species in order to learn how to appropriately behave later in life
What is cultural transmission of behaviour?
Cultural transmission of behaviour is when a pattern of behaviour is passed on to succeeding generations without any genetic changes
What are the 4 other benefits of group living?
1) Energy conservation
2) Easy access to potential mates
3) Working together on shelter
4) Allo-grooming/allo-preening
What are the 5 disadvantages of group living (5 advantages of solitary living)?
1) Increased risk of predation
2) Risk of inbreeding and disproportionate mating opportunities
3) Increased risk of parasite and disease transmission
4) Cooperation requires cognitive investment (via recognition and memory) and frequent encounters
5) Resource depletion and competition for resources and spatial position in the group
How does group living increase risks of predation?
Large groups are easy to spot by predators
True or false
Many species have a strategy where 1 gender disperses and leaves the group to avoid inbreeding
True
True or false
Highest ranking animals are usually responsible for the majority of offspring
True
True or false
Solitary animals are less likely to encounter relatives and thus less likely to inbreed
Also if they come across a mating opportunity they usually have no competitors
True
True or false
Complex societies are associated with bigger, more neuron dense brains
This means the brain has a higher cost for those individuals
True
True or false
There’s trade offs between feeding and foraging, with time reinforcing social bonds
Time reinforcing social bonds is important to maintain cooperation and reduce the cost of cooperation
True
What are the major problem of group living?
Competition for resources and conflicts are the major problems with living in a group
Where possible animals have adapted to resolve conflict without violence via evolving mechanisms to avoid fighting
What are the 2 mechanisms for resolving competition and conflict?
1) Assessment of costly signals
2) Dominance hierarchies
Explain how assessment of costly signals reduces competition and resolves conflict
Males competing for mates may develop energy costly signals to demonstrate their virility to potential mates
The costly signals also demonstrate the males competitiveness to rivals
This means that the costly signals can be used as proxy signals of who would win if they were to actually fight
Animals only fight for mates when it’s unclear who would win on the basis of those proxy signals
Explain how dominance hierarchies work
Dominance hierarchies are a series of pair relationships within a group where 1 individual has priority of access to resources over the other individual
Dominance is conferred by the subordinate
This is because it’s the subordinate individual that declines to compete over the resource
The relationships in terms of rank are maintained by signalling
Within a stable hierarchy there is low aggression since every individual knows there place and knows what order they’ll get access to resources
The stable hierarchy is maintained by clear but often subtle signals
Explain how dominance hierarchies work
Dominance hierarchies are a series of pair relationships within a group where 1 individual has priority of access to resources over the other individual
Dominance is conferred by the subordinate
This is because it’s the subordinate individual that declines to compete over the resource
The relationships in terms of rank are maintained by signalling
Within a stable hierarchy there is low aggression since every individual knows there place and knows what order they’ll get access to resources
The stable hierarchy is maintained by clear but often subtle signals
True or false
It is important to know that dominance hierarchies may not be as we expect them to be due to how the animal perceives them
You can get linear and circular dominance hierarchies
True
What are the 2 main types of dominance hierarchies?
1) Familiarity and individual recognition
2) Status badges
Explain the familiarity and individual recognition dominance hierarchy
The familiarity and individual recognition dominance hierarchy is seen in situations where animals have frequent enough interactions to predict a fight outcome
This relies on remembering specific interactions with specific individuals
Due to this, this type of dominance hierarchy is usually seen in small familiar groups
Due to reliance on memory this method is usually associated with high energy costs in terms of cognition
Explain how the status badges dominance hierarchy works?
Status badges are used where there’s infrequent interactions and it’s impractical to remember interactions with every individual
They’re usually seen in:
- large groups
- unfamiliar groups
This method relies on proxy signals of status
These status badges are generally related to testosterone levels and are thus a proxy for fitness and virility
Explain how group size is regulated
Group size is self regulated
Group size is dictated by the availability of resources to support that group
There’s also a self-regulation of the optimal group size that benefits all members
If the group is too large then there’s high resource competition which increases aggression
This leads to subordinate individuals deserting the group or being driven out
If the group is too small then subordinates may be encouraged to stay by dominant individuals actively granting access to resources or rewarding the subordinate individuals
Define gregariousness
Gregariousness = tendency of those individuals to associate but does not imply social bonds
Define social facilitation
Social facilitation = tendency for a behaviour to be performed in the presence of another performing the same behaviour
Define agonistic behaviour
Agonistic behaviour = behaviour associated with conflict and conflict resolution
Define affiliative behaviour
Affiliative behaviour = socially positive behaviour; preference of company
True or false
Affiliative behaviour is where animals affiliate or show a preference for company of individuals potentially engaging in behaviour with those companions
Affiliative behaviour does not need to be expressed between animals with a social bond but animals with a social bond will perform affiliative behaviours
True
Give 7 examples of affiliative behaviour
1) Proximity
2) Synchrony/mirroring
3) Allogrooming/allo-preening
4) Social play
5) Food sharing
6) Greeting
7) Contact/touching
What are the 2 types of benefits affiliative behaviour give?
1) Physical benefits
2) Social/psychological benefits
What are the social/psychological benefits of affiliative behaviour?
Affiliative behaviour is often heavily involved in maintaining social bonds
This is do e via:
- maintaining social bonds
- maintaining/developing skills
- maintaining/developing relationships
The animal maintains/develops skills/relationships which protect the individual (and it’s fitness) from competition with others
Affiliative behaviour can also be used as a currency to:
- access resources
- reduce tension
- restore relationships after conflict
- deal with stress
True or false
Mesotocin is the oxytocin equivalent in birds
True
True or false
Oxytocin (mammals) and mesotocin (birds) promotes affiliative behaviour
True
You see increases in food sharing and allogrooming in vampire bats with oxytocin increases
You see increases in social play in dogs with increases in oxytocin
In humans if they’re given a dose of oxytocin then that increases trust even with strangers
True or false
Oxytocin/mesotocin supports formation and maintenance of bonds
True
True or false
Levels of oxytocin/mesotocin are elevated after Affiliative or group interactions
True
True or false
Increases in oxytocin increase anxiety and stress
False
Increases in oxytocin reduce anxiety and stress
True or false
There are no oxytocin receptors in the brain
False
There are receptors for oxytocin in the reward centres of the brain suggesting that it’s associated with pleasurable experience
True or false
In mammals the hormone is known as vasopressin
In non-mammalian vertebrates the hormone is vasotocin
True
True or false
Vasopressin/vasotocin has a role in social development
True
True or false
In young offspring vasopressin/vasotocin increases causes closer proximity and contact with parents
True
True or false
In adult males increased vasopressin/vasotocin decreases time spent with adult females
False
In adult males increased vasopressin/vasotocin increases time spent with adult females
What are social bonds?
Social bonds are long term relationships, usually between individuals that are associated with high levels of proximity and positive interactions
Social bonds are thought to play quite a big role in mitigating some of the disadvantages and costs of living in a group
True or false
The bond quality is usually associated with degree of cooperation required
True
True or false
The bond quality is usually associated with degree of cooperation required
True
Give 3 examples of types of social bonds
1) Parent-offspring bonds
2) Pair bonds between breeding males and females
3) Non-reproductive non-related bonds
What are the 5 adaptive benefits associated with social/affiliative bonds?
1) Destressing or reducing tension after conflict
2) Support increased cooperation
3) Social buffering of stress
4) Increased reproductive fitness
5) Decrease morbidity and mortality while increasing longevity
True or false
Some species form flexible short term bonds which also potentially have benefits but not to the same degree as long term social bonds
This tends to happen where grouping patterns are unpredictable or temporary
True
Bonds vary across species but the types of bonds seen generally tend to be related to what 4 things?
Bonds vary across species but the types of bonds seen generally tend to be related to:
Group composition
Availability of resources
Breeding strategies
EnvironmentSocial bonds are constantly revaluated or reaffirmed with affiliative behaviour
The expression of affiliative behaviour can be affected by a number of factors which can vary between species
What 4 factors can affect the expression of affiliative behaviour?
1) Age and sex
2) Kinship
3) Rank
4) Ecological conditions
True or false
Affiliative behaviour and bonds between individuals tend to be more likely if the individuals are of a similar class/rank
True
What 3 reasons are inter-female alliances (female-female alliances) formed for?
1) Protection against harassment from other individuals within the group
2) Support against competition
3) Help with infant care
What 3 reasons are inter-male alliances (male-male alliances) formed?
1) Support in territorial display
2) Patrols
3) Working together to raid for or defend females
What 2 reasons are intersex social bonds (male-female social bonds) formed?
1) Pair bonding
2) Parental cooperation
What 3 reasons do adult males form relationships with younger individuals?
1) Reduce stress
2) Increase mating opportunities
3) Remain closer to the center of the group to protect against predators
What 3 reasons do juveniles form relationships with older individuals?
1) Enhance predator detection
2) Benefit from alloparental care
What does kinship do?
Being related:
Increases Affiliative behaviour and social bonds that are associated with increasing fitness
Decreases aggression
Decreases recruiting support in cooperative breeding
Why do some species form male coalitions between related individuals?
Some species form male coalitions between related individuals to increase:
Territory access
Mating opportunities
Because they have genes in common there’s less of a competition compared to unrelated males
Why might individuals of similar rank engage in affiliative behaviour?
Individuals of the same rank tend to engage in affiliative behaviours towards each other
This is particularly seen with individuals of high rank
This may be partly to reduce social tension where there is closer competitiveness
True or false
Sometimes subordinate individuals will show affiliative behaviour to higher ranked individuals to gain concessions and protection by location or by a favour
True
True or false
In poor quality habitat there’s an increase in affiliative behaviours
False
In poor quality habitat there’s a decrease in affiliative behaviours
As space reduced what strategies emerge in relation to affiliative behaviour?
As space reduced there’s a difference in strategies
In some species they stop all social interactions to reduce conflict risk with little escape opportunities
Other species increase affiliative behaviour to reduce tension
Why does predation risk decrease affiliative behaviour?
Predation risk decreases affiliative behaviour
This is because more time is needed to reaffirm social bonds which would be better spent on vigilance for the predator
