Social Behaviour

Question 1

Define social behaviour

Answer 1

Social behaviour = behaviour associated with interactions between conspecifics (and allospecifics)

Question 2

Why is social behaviour more relevant for groups of animals instead of solitary animals?

Answer 2

Social behaviour allows groups to function
This is not to say that solitary animals don’t interact but it’s less frequent
Mechanisms of social behaviour are what allows groups to function

Question 3

Give examples of animal groups

Answer 3

Small family groups where all individuals know each other

Massive crowds that are little more than aggregations of individuals together

Question 4

Lots of explanations for why animals live in groups is related to cooperative behaviour where there can be mutual benefits with working together
Define cooperative behaviour

Answer 4

Cooperative behaviour = behaviour providing benefit to another and selected upon due to benefit (at least partly)

Question 5

Give an example of cooperative behaviour

Answer 5

Kin selection

Question 6

Explain what kin selection is

Answer 6

Kin selection is a cooperative behaviour between relatives
With Kin selection, helping out your family members can actually increase your own fitness
For kin selection to occur you need heritable altruistic behaviour because it needs to be selected upon to increase fitness
Siblings share half of the same DNA
So if you help raise 2 of your siblings offspring that has the same fitness as if you raised 1 yourself
Also if the animal breeds itself at a later date it will have gained offspring rearing experience and learned how to do it from other individuals

Question 7

For kin selection to work Hamilton’s rule must be in affect

What is Hamilton’s rule?

Answer 7

Hamilton’s rule = Benefits to the relative’s chances of successful reproduction must outweigh cost to aiders own reproductive success

Question 8

What is mutually beneficial cooperation?

Answer 8

Mutually beneficial cooperation is cooperation between animals that aren’t related

Question 9

What are the 2 types of mutually beneficial cooperation and explain what they mean?

Answer 9

1) Intra-specific mutualism
Intra-specific mutualism is where cooperation generates immediate shared synergistic benefits exceeding costs

2) Reciprocal altruism
Reciprocal altruism is where there’s an exchange of resources/services with temporary net costs exceeded by later benefits
Reciprocal altruism will be more likely to occur in stable social groups where the individuals meet often and spend long periods of time together
If they don’t meet often then it can be easy to cheat the system
Cases where reciprocal altruism are most likely to occur are when there’s quick reciprocation to avoid cheating or exploitation

Question 10

You need to be careful at looking at mutually beneficial cooperation because some cooperative behaviour can be explained by manipulation or as a by-product
Explain this

Answer 10

Manipulation may occur where a dominant individual coerce subordinate individuals to help them increase or avoid costs to fitness
This manipulation comprises the subordinate animals fitness while increasing the dominant animals fitness with no return of the benefits

Some cooperative behaviour may be a result of accidental cooperative behaviour
An example is that a subordinate animal will stay near a dominant animal and groom them to avoid harassment from other individuals

Question 11

What 4 things does fake cooperative behaviour do?

Answer 11

1) Not designed to assist a partner
2) Have no reciprocity
3) Offer immediate benefits for 1 party
4) Possibly unequal in cost

Question 12

True or false
Even though there are costs associated to fitness due to the fake cooperative behaviour the overall fitness outcomes of being in a group may outweigh the associated costs

Answer 12

True

Question 13

What are the 3 benefits of group living in the context of feeding?

Answer 13

1) Food detection
2) Prey capture
3) Food protection

Question 14

True or false

There is a trade off between group size and the amount of food available

Answer 14

True

Question 15

Explain what is the by-product of group living in terms of feeding

Answer 15

A by-product of group living is that communal roosts/nesting sites may act as ‘information centres’
This means that individuals who are less successful at food detection can wait at these information centres and then follow a more successful individual
This may seem like a cost to the successful individual but there are some benefits such as:
- mutual benefits associated with predation
- cost of successful individual can be relatively low if food source in large
- Some species can judge when it’s best to share

Question 16

How can group living aid in prey capture?

Answer 16

Predators work in groups to capture bigger prey items which would be unavailable or too dangerous for a solitary hunter

Also if a group of predators attack a prey item or a herd of them it can increase prey panic leading to uncoordinated feeling
This makes it easier to pick off an individual prey item

Question 17

What are the 6 benefits to group living in terms of predation risk?

Answer 17

1) Detection of predators
2) Dilution effect
3) Predator satiation/swamping effect
4) Selfish herd effect
5) Predator confusion
6) Defence against threat

Question 18

True or false

The less individuals there are the less time an individual needs to be vigilant so they can spend more time foraging

Answer 18

False

The more individuals there are the less time an individual needs to be vigilant so they can spend more time foraging

Question 19

In some species there are sentinels, what do they do?

Answer 19

Sentinels will look out for predators as the rest of the group forages and will alarm call when a predator is spotted

Question 20

Why do animals take up the sentinel role?

Answer 20

Animals take up the sentinel role once they’re full and escape faster since they’re the first to see the predator
Also individuals take turns being sentinels

Question 20

Why do animals take up the sentinel role?

Answer 20

Animals take up the sentinel role once they’re full and escape faster since they’re the first to see the predator
Also individuals take turns being sentinels

Question 21

How is alarm calling good?

Answer 21

Alarm calling may seem like a cost to fitness since it attracts the predators attention to the individual calling
However it benefits the individual not alarm calling
Also if the individuals are related it increases the same genes in the population
It increases fitness if the individuals are related via kin selection

Question 22

Explain the dilution effect in terms of predation risk?

Answer 22

The more individuals in a group the less chance each individual has of being picked off by a predator
So increased group size dilutes the risk of any one attack
This means that compared to a solitary individual your fitness is increased if you’re in a group assuming that the attack rate also does not increase with group size

Question 23

Explain predator satiation/swamping effect in terms of predation risk?

Answer 23

If you’re group size is larger than the maximum intake the predator can consume then the predator is satiated before group size is decimated
In relation to dilution theory this method reduces the risk of predation even if there are multiple attacks

Question 24

True or false Predator satiation/swamping effect can act on how animals emerge after reproduction An example is that mayfly emerge over a 2 week period in North America

Answer 24

True

Question 25

Explain the selfish hers effect

Answer 25

The selfish hers effect benefits individuals instead of the whole group It's usually based on rank So in groups, individuals in the middle of the group are safer This is because a predator is more likely to pick out closer individuals which are on the outskirts of the group Individuals will move to a safer position closer to the middle of the herd in order to avoid being predated Individuals that do this are usually high ranking individuals This increases the fitness of the high ranking individuals

Question 26

Explain predator confusion in terms of predation risk

Answer 26

Large numbers of moving prey can impair predator targeting and capture of an individual Some species enhance this with camouflage

Question 27

Explain defence against threat in terms of predation risk

Answer 27

Some species will mob predators hunting by stealth This undermines the predator as everyone can then see them Also if the mob is attacking in a group then they have less chance of being injured if they're distracting the predator and are all coordinating their attack Defense against threat reduces fitness costs for each individual in that group as it reduces the chance of being injured or picked off

Question 28

What are the 3 benefits of group living in terms of social learning and information exchange?

Answer 28

1) Learning from conspecifics 2) Sensitive period 3) Knowledge may be culturally held by groups

Question 29

Give examples of how who an individual learns from affects information

Answer 29

The most important influence on young animals that learn from conspecifics is usually the maternal influence Research also suggests that individuals may pay more attention to demonstrators of higher rank over those who are more successful

Question 30

True or false By learning from other individuals it can increase your own fitness as you learn things without the potentially risky trial and error

Answer 30

True

Question 31

Explain what is meant by sensitive periods in terms of social learning and information exchange

Answer 31

With social learning there are periods throughout an animals life where specific learning has to occur If that specific learning doesn't occur that can impact on social behaviour and social interactions later in life

Question 32

Give 2 examples of sensitive periods in terms of social learning and information exchange and explain what they are

Answer 32

1) Imprinting This happens shortly after birth Imprinting is where there is an attachment formed with a parent in order to increase the chances of survival and at the same time act as a template for future mating partners 2) Socialisation Socialisation is where the animal has to have experiences of other animals of the same species in order to learn how to appropriately behave later in life

Question 33

What is cultural transmission of behaviour?

Answer 33

Cultural transmission of behaviour is when a pattern of behaviour is passed on to succeeding generations without any genetic changes

Question 34

What are the 4 other benefits of group living?

Answer 34

1) Energy conservation 2) Easy access to potential mates 3) Working together on shelter 4) Allo-grooming/allo-preening

Question 35

What are the 5 disadvantages of group living (5 advantages of solitary living)?

Answer 35

1) Increased risk of predation 2) Risk of inbreeding and disproportionate mating opportunities 3) Increased risk of parasite and disease transmission 4) Cooperation requires cognitive investment (via recognition and memory) and frequent encounters 5) Resource depletion and competition for resources and spatial position in the group

Question 36

How does group living increase risks of predation?

Answer 36

Large groups are easy to spot by predators

Question 37

True or false | Many species have a strategy where 1 gender disperses and leaves the group to avoid inbreeding

Answer 37

True

Question 38

True or false | Highest ranking animals are usually responsible for the majority of offspring

Answer 38

True

Question 39

True or false Solitary animals are less likely to encounter relatives and thus less likely to inbreed Also if they come across a mating opportunity they usually have no competitors

Answer 39

True

Question 40

True or false Complex societies are associated with bigger, more neuron dense brains This means the brain has a higher cost for those individuals

Answer 40

True

Question 41

True or false There's trade offs between feeding and foraging, with time reinforcing social bonds Time reinforcing social bonds is important to maintain cooperation and reduce the cost of cooperation

Answer 41

True

Question 42

What are the major problem of group living?

Answer 42

Competition for resources and conflicts are the major problems with living in a group Where possible animals have adapted to resolve conflict without violence via evolving mechanisms to avoid fighting

Question 43

What are the 2 mechanisms for resolving competition and conflict?

Answer 43

1) Assessment of costly signals | 2) Dominance hierarchies

Question 44

Explain how assessment of costly signals reduces competition and resolves conflict

Answer 44

Males competing for mates may develop energy costly signals to demonstrate their virility to potential mates The costly signals also demonstrate the males competitiveness to rivals This means that the costly signals can be used as proxy signals of who would win if they were to actually fight Animals only fight for mates when it's unclear who would win on the basis of those proxy signals

Question 45

Explain how dominance hierarchies work

Answer 45

Dominance hierarchies are a series of pair relationships within a group where 1 individual has priority of access to resources over the other individual Dominance is conferred by the subordinate This is because it's the subordinate individual that declines to compete over the resource The relationships in terms of rank are maintained by signalling Within a stable hierarchy there is low aggression since every individual knows there place and knows what order they'll get access to resources The stable hierarchy is maintained by clear but often subtle signals

Question 45

Explain how dominance hierarchies work

Answer 45

Dominance hierarchies are a series of pair relationships within a group where 1 individual has priority of access to resources over the other individual Dominance is conferred by the subordinate This is because it's the subordinate individual that declines to compete over the resource The relationships in terms of rank are maintained by signalling Within a stable hierarchy there is low aggression since every individual knows there place and knows what order they'll get access to resources The stable hierarchy is maintained by clear but often subtle signals

Question 46

True or false It is important to know that dominance hierarchies may not be as we expect them to be due to how the animal perceives them You can get linear and circular dominance hierarchies

Answer 46

True

Question 47

What are the 2 main types of dominance hierarchies?

Answer 47

1) Familiarity and individual recognition | 2) Status badges

Question 48

Explain the familiarity and individual recognition dominance hierarchy

Answer 48

The familiarity and individual recognition dominance hierarchy is seen in situations where animals have frequent enough interactions to predict a fight outcome This relies on remembering specific interactions with specific individuals Due to this, this type of dominance hierarchy is usually seen in small familiar groups Due to reliance on memory this method is usually associated with high energy costs in terms of cognition

Question 49

Explain how the status badges dominance hierarchy works?

Answer 49

Status badges are used where there's infrequent interactions and it's impractical to remember interactions with every individual They're usually seen in: - large groups - unfamiliar groups This method relies on proxy signals of status These status badges are generally related to testosterone levels and are thus a proxy for fitness and virility

Question 50

Explain how group size is regulated

Answer 50

Group size is self regulated Group size is dictated by the availability of resources to support that group There's also a self-regulation of the optimal group size that benefits all members If the group is too large then there's high resource competition which increases aggression This leads to subordinate individuals deserting the group or being driven out If the group is too small then subordinates may be encouraged to stay by dominant individuals actively granting access to resources or rewarding the subordinate individuals

Question 51

Define gregariousness

Answer 51

Gregariousness = tendency of those individuals to associate but does not imply social bonds

Question 52

Define social facilitation

Answer 52

Social facilitation = tendency for a behaviour to be performed in the presence of another performing the same behaviour

Question 53

Define agonistic behaviour

Answer 53

Agonistic behaviour = behaviour associated with conflict and conflict resolution

Question 54

Define affiliative behaviour

Answer 54

Affiliative behaviour = socially positive behaviour; preference of company

Question 55

True or false Affiliative behaviour is where animals affiliate or show a preference for company of individuals potentially engaging in behaviour with those companions Affiliative behaviour does not need to be expressed between animals with a social bond but animals with a social bond will perform affiliative behaviours

Answer 55

True

Question 56

Give 7 examples of affiliative behaviour

Answer 56

1) Proximity 2) Synchrony/mirroring 3) Allogrooming/allo-preening 4) Social play 5) Food sharing 6) Greeting 7) Contact/touching

Question 57

What are the 2 types of benefits affiliative behaviour give?

Answer 57

1) Physical benefits | 2) Social/psychological benefits

Question 58

What are the social/psychological benefits of affiliative behaviour?

Answer 58

Affiliative behaviour is often heavily involved in maintaining social bonds This is do e via: - maintaining social bonds - maintaining/developing skills - maintaining/developing relationships The animal maintains/develops skills/relationships which protect the individual (and it's fitness) from competition with others Affiliative behaviour can also be used as a currency to: - access resources - reduce tension - restore relationships after conflict - deal with stress

Question 59

True or false | Mesotocin is the oxytocin equivalent in birds

Answer 59

True

Question 60

True or false | Oxytocin (mammals) and mesotocin (birds) promotes affiliative behaviour

Answer 60

True You see increases in food sharing and allogrooming in vampire bats with oxytocin increases You see increases in social play in dogs with increases in oxytocin In humans if they're given a dose of oxytocin then that increases trust even with strangers

Question 61

True or false | Oxytocin/mesotocin supports formation and maintenance of bonds

Answer 61

True

Question 62

True or false | Levels of oxytocin/mesotocin are elevated after Affiliative or group interactions

Answer 62

True

Question 63

True or false | Increases in oxytocin increase anxiety and stress

Answer 63

False | Increases in oxytocin reduce anxiety and stress

Question 64

True or false | There are no oxytocin receptors in the brain

Answer 64

False There are receptors for oxytocin in the reward centres of the brain suggesting that it's associated with pleasurable experience

Question 65

True or false In mammals the hormone is known as vasopressin In non-mammalian vertebrates the hormone is vasotocin

Answer 65

True

Question 66

True or false | Vasopressin/vasotocin has a role in social development

Answer 66

True

Question 67

True or false | In young offspring vasopressin/vasotocin increases causes closer proximity and contact with parents

Answer 67

True

Question 68

True or false | In adult males increased vasopressin/vasotocin decreases time spent with adult females

Answer 68

False | In adult males increased vasopressin/vasotocin increases time spent with adult females

Question 69

What are social bonds?

Answer 69

Social bonds are long term relationships, usually between individuals that are associated with high levels of proximity and positive interactions Social bonds are thought to play quite a big role in mitigating some of the disadvantages and costs of living in a group

Question 70

True or false | The bond quality is usually associated with degree of cooperation required

Answer 70

True

Question 71

True or false | The bond quality is usually associated with degree of cooperation required

Answer 71

True

Question 72

Give 3 examples of types of social bonds

Answer 72

1) Parent-offspring bonds 2) Pair bonds between breeding males and females 3) Non-reproductive non-related bonds

Question 73

What are the 5 adaptive benefits associated with social/affiliative bonds?

Answer 73

1) Destressing or reducing tension after conflict 2) Support increased cooperation 3) Social buffering of stress 4) Increased reproductive fitness 5) Decrease morbidity and mortality while increasing longevity

Question 74

True or false Some species form flexible short term bonds which also potentially have benefits but not to the same degree as long term social bonds This tends to happen where grouping patterns are unpredictable or temporary

Answer 74

True

Question 75

Bonds vary across species but the types of bonds seen generally tend to be related to what 4 things?

Answer 75

``` Bonds vary across species but the types of bonds seen generally tend to be related to: Group composition Availability of resources Breeding strategies Environment ```

Question 76

Social bonds are constantly revaluated or reaffirmed with affiliative behaviour The expression of affiliative behaviour can be affected by a number of factors which can vary between species What 4 factors can affect the expression of affiliative behaviour?

Answer 76

1) Age and sex 2) Kinship 3) Rank 4) Ecological conditions

Question 77

True or false Affiliative behaviour and bonds between individuals tend to be more likely if the individuals are of a similar class/rank

Answer 77

True

Question 78

What 3 reasons are inter-female alliances (female-female alliances) formed for?

Answer 78

1) Protection against harassment from other individuals within the group 2) Support against competition 3) Help with infant care

Question 79

What 3 reasons are inter-male alliances (male-male alliances) formed?

Answer 79

1) Support in territorial display 2) Patrols 3) Working together to raid for or defend females

Question 80

What 2 reasons are intersex social bonds (male-female social bonds) formed?

Answer 80

1) Pair bonding | 2) Parental cooperation

Question 81

What 3 reasons do adult males form relationships with younger individuals?

Answer 81

1) Reduce stress 2) Increase mating opportunities 3) Remain closer to the center of the group to protect against predators

Question 82

What 3 reasons do juveniles form relationships with older individuals?

Answer 82

1) Enhance predator detection | 2) Benefit from alloparental care

Question 83

What does kinship do?

Answer 83

Being related: Increases Affiliative behaviour and social bonds that are associated with increasing fitness Decreases aggression Decreases recruiting support in cooperative breeding

Question 84

Why do some species form male coalitions between related individuals?

Answer 84

Some species form male coalitions between related individuals to increase: Territory access Mating opportunities Because they have genes in common there's less of a competition compared to unrelated males

Question 85

Why might individuals of similar rank engage in affiliative behaviour?

Answer 85

Individuals of the same rank tend to engage in affiliative behaviours towards each other This is particularly seen with individuals of high rank This may be partly to reduce social tension where there is closer competitiveness

Question 86

True or false Sometimes subordinate individuals will show affiliative behaviour to higher ranked individuals to gain concessions and protection by location or by a favour

Answer 86

True

Question 87

True or false | In poor quality habitat there's an increase in affiliative behaviours

Answer 87

False | In poor quality habitat there's a decrease in affiliative behaviours

Question 88

As space reduced what strategies emerge in relation to affiliative behaviour?

Answer 88

As space reduced there's a difference in strategies In some species they stop all social interactions to reduce conflict risk with little escape opportunities Other species increase affiliative behaviour to reduce tension

Question 89

Why does predation risk decrease affiliative behaviour?

Answer 89

Predation risk decreases affiliative behaviour | This is because more time is needed to reaffirm social bonds which would be better spent on vigilance for the predator