Perceptual Abilities Flashcards
What is perception?
Perception is the process by which individuals register and evaluate information
Perceptual information can come from what kind of environmental situations?
Internal environment
External environment
How can perceptual information be processed?
Consciously
Unconsciously
Is perception subjective or objective?
Subjective
This means that each individual’s perception:
- may differ from reality
- is private to each individual
What are the perceptual abilities of a species suited to?
The perceptual abilities of a species is suited to a specific evolutionary niche
Define umwelt
Umwelt = an individual’s own unique perceived view of the world
Because perception is subjective what does this mean for the individuals perceived view of the world?
The subjectivity of perception gives every individual its own unique perceived view of the world
The subjectivity of perception gives every individual its own umwelt
When and by who coined the term umwelt?
Umwelt is a term coined in 1936 by Jakob Von Uexküll
How can COVID-19 effect an individual’s umwelt?
COVID-19 symptoms cause senses to be lost which means that COVID-19 can alter an individual’s umwelt
What can subjective perception vary between?
Species
Individuals
Why do perceptions differ between individuals and species?
Perceptions differ between individuals and species due to differences in:
- sensory abilities
- ways they evaluate or interpret stimuli
Perception can be broken down into different modalities
What are the classic perceptual modalities?
Visual
Olfactory
Auditory
Gustatory
Taste
Somatosensory
TouchIn sentient species sensations may produce qualia
What is qualia?
Qualia = raw feelings
The individual knows what it feels like to be stimulated by the stimuli
The feelings associated by the stimuli are subjective
In recent years how has science evolved to allow us to figure out how an animal feels and sees the world?
In more recent years science has evolved with Applied Anthology and Animal Welfare sciences creating ways in which we can figure out how an animal feels and sees the world
Sensory systems in individuals can vary in size and structure due to what things?
Species differences Breed differences Strain differences Stages of development Early experiences
What 3 components make up a sensory system?
1) sensory organ
2) Modality-specific sensory cells
3) Midbrain and forebrain regions of the Central Nervous System
What are sensory organ?
Sensory organs are anatomical parts that the size and structure of it can affect function
A sensory organ is an anatomical part of the individuals body like their:
- eyes
- ears
- tongue
- skin
What do sensory organs have that detects sensory stimuli?
Modality-specific sensory cells
How can modality-specific sensory cells vary?
Modality-specific sensory cells vary in:
- sensitivity to a stimulus
- quality of which stimulus can stimulate the cell
In sensory systems what does the midbrain and forebrain regions of the Central Nervous System do?
The midbrain and forebrain regions of the Central Nervous System will process the sensory data into useable information
This will then allow the individual to decide whether to act or not act on the stimulus
What are the 5 traditional/classic modalities?
1) Vision
2) Hearing
3) Touch
4) Taste
5) Smell
What are the sensory organs associated with vision and what does it detect?
The typical sensory organ associated with vision are the eyes
The eyes detect electromagnetic radiation (light waves)
What is the sensory organ associated with hearing and what does it detect?
The typical sensory organ associated with hearing is the ears
The ears detect pressure waves in the air
Give an example of a sensory organ associated with touch and what it detects?
An example of a sensory organ associated with touch is skin
Skin detects pressure and other types of stimulation
Name the typical sensory organ associated with taste and what it detects?
The sensory organ typically associated with taste is the tongue
The tongue detects chemicals
Which sensory organ is typically associated with smell and what does it detect?
The sensory organ typically associated with smell is the nose
The nose detects chemicals
True or false
The nose and tongue sometimes detect the same chemicals/molecules
True
Why are there 5 traditional modalities?
There are 4 traditional modalities since they’re how humans perceive the world
Give examples of how non-human species use different sensory organs to perceive the world
Some animals use heat pits or pineal organs to be able to use the visual modality
Fish use their lateral line as their sensory organ to use the hearing modality by detecting pressure waves
Some animals use whiskers as an additional sensory organ to use the touch modality
Some animals use a vomeronasal organ as an additional sensory organ to use the touch modality
Give examples of additional modalities that non-human animals use to perceive the world
Infrared detection for heat
Electroreception
Mangnetoreception
How can animals detect light using their skin?
Animals can use chromatophore cells in the skin to detect light
Chromatophores are responsible for rapid colour changes
How can animals detect light using a pineal gland?
The pineal gland is located within the brain near the cerebellum
The pineal gland can detect light intensity
In vertebrates that use the pineal gland it is not covered by any other brain structure so light can directly go to it through the skin and skull
However in mammals the forebrain covers the pineal gland so it can’t detect light
In mammals they can only detect light through the eyes
How can animals detect infrared electromagnetic radiation and give an example?
An example of a sensory organ that can detect infrared electromagnetic radiation are heat pits in vipers
Within the heat pits are cells that detect electromagnetic radiation
This allows some snakes to see in complete darkness without relying on sight or hearing
Animals with heat pits can also combine thermal signals with visual information in the optic tectum
Why can some animals detect whether something is far away or nearby by detecting their body heat?
This is used by predators to detect warm blooded prey
Vampire bats are a classic example of an animal detecting body heat to find a source of food
What are whiskers also known as?
Whiskers = vibrissae
Explain how whiskers/vibrissae work
In some species their whiskers/vibrissae are so well developed that they move them like fingers and rotate them
In other species their whiskers/vibrissae stay still
The pressure sensors that allow animals to use their whiskers/vibrissae for touch are in the animals skin around the whisker’s/vibrissae’s base
Whiskers/vibrissae are highly developed touch organs
What is the Vomero-Nasal Organ also known as?
Vomero-Nasal Organ = VNO = Jacobson’s organ
Explain how the Vomero-Nasal Organ/Jacobson’s organ work?
The receptors within the vomeronasal organ/Jacobson’s organ send signals directly to an accessory olfactory bulb in the brain
They detect non-volatile molecules specifically with the example of pheromones and chemical secretions
The vomeronasal organ/Jacobson’s organ detects non-volatile molecules via a cross between taste and smell
How do we know that the vomeronasal organ/ Jacobson’s organ is an ancient form of modern day olfactory systems?
The vomeronasal organ/Jacobson’s organ works better underwater since it first evolved when the first aquatic vertebrates evolved
The vomeronasal organ is one of the first olfactory systems to evolve on earth
Explain why and how animals use organs for electrosensation
Some animals have organs for electrosensation to aid in hunting
These organs sense electrical impulses within their preys body allowing them to find food
The organs for electrosensation detect electric fields that are generated by an animals muscle and nerve action
Where are the organs for electrosensation usually found?
The organs for electrosensation are usually found on the animals snout
Organs for electrosensation are almost exclusively seen in what kinds of animal and why mainly those kinds of animals?
Organs for electrosensation are almost exclusively seen in aquatic and amphibious animals because water conducts electricity better than air
Give examples of animals with organs for electrosensation
Duck-billed platypus
Guiana dolphin
Give examples of animals that can detect magnetic north
Pigeons
Ungulates
What can disrupt orientation to magnetic north in the species that can detect magnetic north?
Orientation by detecting magnetic north can be disrupted by power-lines
Why might an animal loose a sensory organ?
Some animals have evolved to loose a sensory organ mainly due to their environment making them useless
This is done to save energy by not generating neuronal tissue for a stimulus the species will never encounter
This is due to ontogenic processes
What are sensory organs made up of?
Sensory organs are made up of modality-specific sensory cells
How can modality-specific sensory cells vary?
The modality-specific sensory cells can vary in sensitivity and quality of the stimulus they can pick up
What are the species differences between modality-specific sensory cells?
The sensitivity and ranges of responsiveness of the modality-specific sensory cells varies between species
Give examples of different adaption to low light situations
Large pupils collect more light photons
Large retinas receive more photons
Tapetum lucidum
More rod cells in the retina
What is a tapetum lucidum and how does it work?
Some species have evolved a tapetum lucidum
The tapetum lucidum is a layer of reflective cell that sits behind the retina so any photons that are not absorbed by the retina are reflected back to the retina to be absorbed
True or false
The tapetum lucidum has evolved separately in different groups of animals
True
The tapetum lucidum was created in multiple unrelated species without a common ancestor
Give examples of what the tapetum lucidum is made up of
In carnivores the tapetum lucidum is made up of light reflective crystals
In ungulates the tapetum lucidum is made up of extracellular fibres
How do rod cells work?
Rod cells are the black and white receptors that just detect if light is present
Rod cells function better in low light scenarios
Rod cells are achromatic
How is visual acuity achieved?
Visual acuity is achieved with the cone cells and the eyes lens
Differences in visual acuity can also depend on the energetic costs from the eyes based on the animals visual needs
Higher cone cell concentrations in the retina increase visual acuity
More come cells can create an effect similar to increasing pixels in a photo.
Higher quality lenses can also concentrate the photons to the retina better
True or false
Colour vision also varies due to ranges of spectral sensitivity determining degrees of colour vision
True
Due to the fact that colour vision varies due to ranges of spectral sensitivity determining degrees of colour vision there are differences between what?
This causes differences in colour vision between:
- species
- individuals within the same species
Primates (including humans are trichromatic, what does this mean and what are the peak/threshold values?
Trichromatic means that primates have 3 types of cone cells in our eyes
Each cone cell types peak/threshold is at either of the following respectively in primates:
- 450nm
- 540nm
-580nm
What does dichromatic mean?
This means they only have 2 types of cone cells
Depending where in the light spectrum their cone cells threshold/peak is will determine how good those animals are at determining different shades of the light spectrum
Give some examples of animals that are dichromatic
The following animals may be red-green colourblind due to their cones peaking at 440nm and 555nm respectively:
- Dogs
- Foxes
- Mink
- Cats
Cattle, sheep and goats have cones that peak at 440-455nm and 536-555nm respectively
Despite having peaks in those areas they are not red-green colourblind but instead find it hard to distinguish greens from blues and violets
What light frequencies can be seen by animals with ultraviolet vision?
Animals with ultraviolet vision can see light frequencies below 400nm
Five examples of animals with ultraviolet vision
Birds
Nocturnal rodents
Some insects
However each species will see things differently due to different cone cell peak frequencies
Give examples of ultraviolet vision use in animals
Fruits, flowers and seeds have better background contrast when looking at them with ultraviolet vision making them easier to find
In nocturnal species ultraviolet vision increases the animals ability to find food items in dim lights or shadowy conditions
In birds ultraviolet vision is just an additional visual ability
Birds have a fourth type of cone cell which allows them to capture the ultraviolet spectrum
In rodents ultraviolet vision is due to them seeing the world differently due to their dichromatic cone cells
True or false
Birds are tetrachromatic
True
Why are birds tetrachromatic?
Tetrachromatic vision in birds is due to them having 4 types of cone cells in their retinas
The extra cone cell type allows them to see ultraviolet frequencies (light frequencies below 400nm)
Why do several bird species prefer light in the UV spectrum?
This could be due to health reasons
This could be because bird feathers are UV absorbent and reflective leading to birds sometimes having patterns we can’t see
Due to this breeding birds may choose their mates based on how the other birds look in ultraviolet vision
There is a variety between species in their sensitivity to specific sounds
Variations in sound sensitivity are due to what?
Variations in sound sensitivity are due to body size and lifestyle
True or false
Low frequency sounds travel further
True
High frequency sounds are more easily attenuated by the environment
Attenuated = having been reduced in force effect or value
Give examples of animals with different hearing capabilities to humans
Cats and dogs are better than humans in their abilities to hear high frequency sounds
Rats are worse than humans when it comes to hearing low pitches but better than humans when it comes to hearing high pitches
Rats can also hear ultrasound
What is ultrasound?
Ultrasound is sound above human hearing frequencies
Give an example of an animals that can use ultrasound
Rodents use ultrasound to communicate
Some think that because ultrasound dissipates rapidly it reduces the risk of predators hearing them and finding them
Bats use eco-location for navigation and hunting
Machinery can also produce ultrasound which may effect the animals that can hear it
An example of this is that during the pandemic birds have started singing at normal frequencies in cities due to reduced background noise that they’d need to sing above
What is infrasound?
Infrasound is sound produced below the human hearing range
Give an example of an animal that uses infrasound
Elephants use infrasound to communicate across long distances
Being able to hear infrasound may be limited by what?
Being able to hear infrasound may be limited by wavelength:head size ratios
What is meant by the fact that humans are almost anosmic
Human olfactory organs have very low sensitivity
Anosmic = can’t smell
Human sensitivity to smell is 10,000-100,000 times lower than dogs
Dogs are better than humans at smelling because their olfactory organs have what?
800 different olfactory receptor types
More olfactory receptors per unit area of olfactory epithelium
More olfactory epithelium
Dogs have 150-170cm2 olfactory epithelium compared to humans with 2-4cm2 of olfactory epithelium
More innervation
Dogs have 100 times more neurones linking their olfactory epithelium to their brain compared to humans
Dogs also have more neural tissue in their forebrain to process olfactory information
Species with good sense of smell will evolve what?
Longer nasal cavities by evolving snouts
A complex series of turbinate bones
This means that nasal cavities structure has lots of convolutions to increase tissue surface area to increase the number of receptors that can be their
This allows olfactory receptors to be more densely packed into the olfactory organ
Due to animals amazing olfactory sensitivity we can use them to sniff out what?
Bombs
Drugs
Diseases
However you need to train the animals to be used to the situations and for people not to freak out when seeing them
Give an example an animal that’s used to detect something using their olfactory sensitivity?
The sensitive olfactory capabilities of the Gambian Giant Pouched Rat allow them to detect landmines in Africa
These rats are helping clear mine fields
What does it mean by the fact that “animals are not passive receivers of stimuli”
They don’t stay in 1 place waiting for a stimulus to be detected by their modality-specific sensory cells
What is meant by the fact that “animals use behaviour to adjust how much sensory information comes in”
Animals can either seek or avoid the sensory information by using their behaviour
True or false
Animals use behaviour to adjust which half of the brain received the most information
True
True or false
Processes in the brain focus attention on relevant stimuli
True
What is the function of the midbrain and forebrain regions of the Central Nervous System?
The midbrain and forebrain regions of the Central Nervous System process the data from the sensory organs into useable information
Give examples of regions of the brain that process data from sensory organs into useable information
Olfactory lobes
Visual cortex
Auditory cortex
Somatosensory cortex
All sensory neurones enter the brain except for what type of neurones?
All sensory neurones enter the brain except for neural fibres relaying somatosensation from the body
Somatosensation = the perception of sensory stimuli coming from the skin that involves senses of touch, temperature, body position and pain
Which nerve fibres enter the forebrain directly?
Only the optic nerve fibres and olfactory nerve fibres enter the forebrain directly
In species with extrasensory modalities where does the nerve fibre end up going?
In species with extrasensory modalities the nerve fibres for those modalities will enter the brain and combine with the visual information in the midbrain’s optic tectum
What is meant by the fact “different species with extra or fewer modalities will have different levels of the brain where they can combine information from different sensory organs and sensory receptors”
Each species has its own brain structure to be able to cope with, and process, sensory information
What is meant by the fact “the olfactory lobes get information symmetrically”?
The right nostril sends sensory information to the right olfactory lobe
The left nostril sends sensory information to the left olfactory lobe
Where does the sensory information from a vomeronasal organ/Jacobson’s organ go?
Species with vomeronasal organ/Jacobson’s organ will also have an additional olfactory lobe to process sensory information from the vomeronasal organ/ Jacobson’s organ
What happens in the brain if the sense is very important?
The more important a sense is to the animal then the more cortical area and cortical neurons are dedicated to it
How can asymmetrical processing of emotional stimulations also affect how an animal smells things?
The right hemisphere of the brain is more involved with processing negative emotions
Due to this some animals smell negative stimulants with their right nostril more than their left
This has been seen in horses and cattle
What is meant by “visual information is processed assymetrically”?
Information from the left eye is sent to the right visual cortex
Information from the right eye is sent to the left visual cortex
What is the visual cortex used for?
Differentiate object size Calculate speeds of moving objects See the direction an object is moving in See object locations See object distances Detect texture Detect colour
The visual cortex takes all the information from the eyes and does what to it?
Merge all the information together
Removed things like your nose from the visual data which may obscure the image you are seeing
Your visual cortex takes all the visual information and processes it so you can identify/know what you’re looking at and actually see it
What is meant by “auditory information is processed assymetrically”?
The left ear send information to the right auditory cortex
The right ear send information to the left auditory cortex
The auditory cortex is largest in what kinds of animals?
The auditory cortex is largest in animals that can use echolocation
Emotional information is processed in the right hemisphere, what is the result of this?
Due to this humans are better at knowing when somebody is lying to us if we hear it clearer through our left ear
In horses this is also seen because:
- horses listen to strangers with their right ear
- horses listen to their friends with their left ear
This shows that there are slight subtleties in how stimuli is classified and processed in the brain
Animals use behaviour to choose which side they process information with
1 side may have a different emotional value
What kind of information is inferred from auditory data?
Object speed as it moves
Object location
Object size
Object texture
Where is somatosensory information sent to?
Somatosensory information is sent to the somatosensory cortex from the entire body
Explain what is meant by “emotional laterisation is less clear with how it’s processed for somatosensory information”
Because the somatosensory information is coming from all over the body we are not clear about whether theirs any emotional behaviour affecting the information input
Some studies suggest that the left side of the human body may be more pain sensitive however it’s not clear to what extent this could be true
The somatosensory cortex processes what kind of information?
The somatosensory cortex processes tactile information
What is a sensory homunculous?
Sensory homunculous are visual representations of how the somatosensory cortex processes information from different parts of the body
They look like the animal but with body parts enlarged or shrank based on the proportion of information from that body part the somatosensory cortex processes
Sensory homunculous represent the cortical processing of touch from different body parts
The sensory homunculous can be used to represent how information is processed by the somatosensory cortex
This will give us a representation of the body surface processed by the somatosensory cortex in relation to the density of receptor cells
True or false
Sensory homunculous look similar to motor homunculous because there tends to be motor receptors in body parts we can move to help control fine movement
True
Explain what cross modal recognition is
Cross modal recognition is where an animal can combine cues from different modalities
By combining information from different senses the animal can truly know what something is
Give an example of cross modal recognition
An example is you need to see, smell and taste a strawberry to know what it is
You can think about it and conjour up the sensations associated with it via cross model recognition
Which brain region is responsible for cross modal recognition?
The brain region responsible for cross modal recognition is the association cortex’s parietal lobe
How are stimuli given an emotional value?
For each stimulus the individual will assign it an emotional value
Some stimuli are inherently positive or negative
Other stimuli are categorised due to learning experiences
Which stimuli are positive or negative depend on the species and their individual states
What parts of the forebrain are responsible for giving stimuli emotional values?
The pre-frontal cortex’s orbitofrontal cortex determines pleasant sensations
The amygdala is used to determine nasty or frightening sensations
