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Animal Behaviour And Cognition > Sexual Behaviour > Flashcards

Sexual Behaviour Flashcards

1
Q

What is important to know when studying reproductive biology?

A

When studying reproductive biology it’s important to know that due to each sexes respective differences in biology the reproductive interests of males and females are often at odds

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2
Q

What are the usual sex ratios in species?

A

Usually at any given time there are more males available than females

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3
Q

What does the sex ratio depend on?

A

This depends on the species

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4
Q

What is the main biological difference between males and females

A

The key biological difference between males and females is that game production varies greatly between the sexes

For males gametogenesis is energetically cheap and usually continuos in males
Males also do no/little for the offspring usually

For females gametogenesis is energetically costly and rare in females
Caring of offspring is usually a key aspect of female reproductive behaviour

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5
Q

What is the difference between the sexes in terms of offspring production?

A

Females are genetically limited in how many offspring they can produce and nurture compared to males

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6
Q

What determines what an animal needs to do to gain sexual access to conspecifics?

A

Mating systems determine what an animal needs to do to gain sexual access to conspecifics

Species differences in background, biology and social systems affect an individual’s chances of mating

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7
Q

In vertebrates with only 2 sexes there’s 4 different mating systems they could use, what are they?

A

1) Promiscuity
2) Polygyny
3) Polyandry
4) Monogamy

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7
Q

In vertebrates with only 2 sexes there’s 4 different mating systems they could use, what are they?

A

1) Promiscuity
2) Polygyny
3) Polyandry
4) Monogamy

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8
Q

What determines which mating systems a species will use?

A

Which mating system is used depends on how many sexual partners each of the sexes may have

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9
Q

Describe the promiscuity mating system

A

The promiscuity mating system is used when there are a lot of females and a lot of males available
There are no stable pair bonds
Every individual mates with multiple partners regardless of their sex
In terms of behaviour either 1 or both sexes will search for mates
Females are generally more picky than males in most species

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10
Q

Give examples of what kinds of animals use promiscuity mating systems

A

Carnivores
Rodents
Primates

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11
Q

Give an example of an exception to the rule that carnivores use the promiscuity mating system

A

Wolves are an example of an exception to the promiscuity system as wolves use the Polygyny mating system

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12
Q

Describe the monogamy mating system

A

This is where strong pair bonds form between individuals
Monogamy is rare
Monogamy is a mating system where parental care and paternal care are the most common
Monogamy is a mating system where both sexes are very choosy about who they pair with

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13
Q

Give some examples of monogamy

A

Some rodents species
Some humans
Many bird species

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14
Q

What is social monogamy?

A

Social monogamy refers to a male and female’s social living arrangement without inferring any sexual interactions or reproductive patterns

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15
Q

What kind of animals are the exception to monogamous mating systems?

A

Harm holders are examples of exceptions to the monogamy mating system

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16
Q

Describe the Polygyny mating system

A

Polygyny is a mating system that creates a harem consisting of 1 male and multiple females
Males get access to females by defeating other males
Females can still choose their mates however it’s less direct than in monogamous and promiscuous mating systems

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17
Q

Give examples of animals that use the Polygyny mating system

A

Wolves
Ungulates
Most domesticated species use Polygyny as a mating system

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18
Q

Describe Polyandry

A

Polyandry is a mating system that creates a harem consisting of 1 female and multiple males
Polyandry is a rare form of mating system with only a few species using it

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19
Q

Sexual behaviour is linked to what 2 phases?

A

1) Appetitive phase

2) Consummatory phase

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20
Q

What does the appetitive phase focus on?

A

The appetitive phase focuses on all the behaviours associated with gaining access to the other sex

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21
Q

What does the consummatory phase focus on?

A

The consummatory phase focuses on all the behaviours during the actual mating

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22
Q

The appetitive phase can be broken down into 3 sub-phases, what are they?

A

1) Mate search
2) Attraction
3) Proceptive behaviour

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23
Q

Mate search is a sub-phases of the appetitive phase and is only seen in what kinds of animals?

A

Mate search is an extra phase seen in species that are solitary and/or promiscuous

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24
Q

Describe what happens in the appetitive sub-phase, attraction

A

Attraction focused on any behaviours where the individual emits a stimuli and performance behaviour to attract any individual of the opposite sex
These are species specific behaviours

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25
Q

What are the the kinds of behaviours seen in the appetitive sub-phase Proceptive behaviour?

A

Proceptive behaviours are behaviours done in the context of sexual behaviour known as courtship behaviour

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26
Q

Where are courtship displays done?

A

Courtship behaviours are given/done to a specific individual in their immediate vicinity

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27
Q

What do proceptive behaviours do?

A

Proceptive behaviours will:

      - promote sexual interactions
      - advertise readiness to mate
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28
Q

Are Proceptive behaviours species specific?

A

Proceptive behaviours are usually species specific

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29
Q

True or false
Some species have sensory modalities that are capable of sending proceptive behaviour signals over vast distances and to detect them

A

True

Scent marking and pheromones are examples of this in certain situations

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30
Q

Proceptive behaviours that are courtship behaviours are behaviours between what?

A

Proceptive behaviours that are courtship behaviours are behaviours between a pair of individuals from opposite sexes

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31
Q

Give examples of Proceptive behaviours that are courtship behaviours between a pair of individuals from opposite sexes

A

They’re typically seen in species where females choose their partners

Proceptive behaviours that are courtship behaviours tend to be vocalisations or another display of readiness to mate and why they’re the best option

Many examples can be seen in birds like in the birds of paradise

In rodents females will perform an ear wiggle to keep a male nearby and release pheromones

Some mice also sing to females, serenading them in ultrasound with specific songs that are only used in courtship displays

In polygynous species the courtship behaviour can be more subtle

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32
Q

During the consummatory phase of sexual behaviour there will be receptive behaviours
What are receptive behaviours?

A

Receptive behaviours are specific postures and signals letting the other individual know that they’re ready to mate

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33
Q

In species with internal fertilisation what follows after the receptive behaviours of the consummatory phase of sexual behaviour?

A

In species with internal fertilisation there will also be male intromission (penetration) and ejaculation
This is typically followed by a refractory period of low sexual motivation
There sometimes needs to be a lot of coordination between male and female to safely and successfully copulate

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34
Q

What is the motivational state underlying the consummatory behaviours called?

A

Libido

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35
Q

What 2 internal factors are causal explanations of sexual behaviour?

A

1) Hormones

2) Neurotransmitters

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36
Q

What 2 external factors are causal explanations of sexual behaviour?

A

1) Things that affect general abilities to become sexually motivated
2) Things that are necessary to trigger bouts of courtship and mating

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37
Q

An internal causal factor is the activational effects of testosterone may be needed for males of some species
Explain how this works?

A

Testosterone is needed in some species for the male to display the sexual behaviour
Activational effects are things that tend to either increase or decrease the probability of a behaviour being expressed

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38
Q

Give examples of neurotransmitters that act as internal causal factors for sexual behaviour

A

Oxytocin

Vasopressin

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39
Q

There are also ‘enabling’ internal causal factors, explain what they are

A

The enabling internal factors are not by themselves essential for sexual behaviour but they contribute to sexual behaviour occurring
Enabling internal factors are general factors that allow the individual to become sexually motivated

40
Q

Give 3 examples of enabling internal causal factors

A

1) Good health
- Health problems can cause pain that reduces sexual motivation

2) Low adiposity
- Excess or insufficient fat often reduces:
- sex hormones
- sexual motivation
- fertility

3) Low stress
- Acute and chronic stress reduces sexual motivation in both sexes
- Stress can interfere with testosterone release
- Stress can interfere with normal female menstral cycling

41
Q

Give examples of external factors affecting general abilities of an individual to become sexually motivated

A

1) Season
2) Social environment
3) sensory perception cues

42
Q

How is season an external causal factor affecting general abilities of an individual to become sexually motivated?

A

Many species only mate once a year
When they mate is timed for optimal infant survival
In some species seasonal effects are reduced due to domestication
Seasonal cue examples are altered photoperiods
Photoperiod = the period of time each day during which an organism receives illumination; day length

43
Q

How is social environment an external causal factor?

A

The social environment is where cues from the other sex elicit the sexual motivation
Specific cues from the other sex induce sexual motivation
Examples of this are:
Courtship behaviours
Whitten effect

44
Q

What is the Whitten effect?

A

The Whitten effect is where the mere presence of a male induces estrous in females

45
Q

Give some example of sensory perceptive cues that act as external causal factors

A

Olfactory cues
Pheromones

Auditory cues
Specific vocalisations

Tactile cues
In many species genital contact between male and female is necessary to elicit receptive postures

Visual cues
Some species have visual signals associated with estrous and also specific postures
Social environment is another example

Novelty effects
These are new things that may trigger sexual behaviour
A new individual can also do this

46
Q

Explain how puberty effects sexual behaviour

A

In both sexes hormonal changes at puberty result in the onset of sexual behaviour
The hormonal changes cause activational effects
The hormonal changes during puberty lead to morphological and behavioural changes happening after hormonal changes
The timing of these changes will vary between species
The timing of these changes depends on many factors, both social and asocial

47
Q

Give examples of morphological and behavioural changes following hormonal changes in puberty

A

Development of secondary sex characteristics so they become more attractive to the opposite sex
Changes in olfactory cues
Changes in social and sexual behaviour

48
Q

In adulthood animal preferences for mate selection change and are usually what?

A

Males often prefer younger females

Females often prefer older males

49
Q

There are also changes in sexual behaviour in late adulthood, what are they?

A

Both sexes show a decline in sexual behaviours with age, which is associated with the reduction in sex hormones
Females generally decline in sexual activity earlier than males

50
Q

True or false

Only mammals show a true menopause

A

False
Only humans show a true menopause
Menopause = the ceasing of menstration
This means that only humans have a set time where females completely stop producing ova
In other animals reproductive function works but declined with age

51
Q

Effects of early experiences on later adult sexual behaviour can be seen in what 3 types of changes?

A

1) Organizational effects of hormones

2) Lasting effects of early stress and/or malnutrition
Suffering from stress or malnutrition in early life can compromise later on adult sexual behaviour

3) Imprinting and socialisation
Imprinting and socialisation is done via learning about conspecifics in infancy

52
Q

Give some examples of how lasting effects of early stress and/or malnutrition can affect sexual behaviour

A

Prenatal stress can interfere with prenatal and neonatal testosterone surges and demasculinize males

In birds the stress can affect male bird early brain development
Some birds have a specific structure in their brains called the song nuclei which is devoted to singing
Some negative developmental effects can compromise brain development causing the song nuclei to shrink or become dysfunctional in some way
Due to this when those birds with the poorly developed song nuclei become adults they won’t be able to sing properly and so can’t attract a mate

 Sex differences in the males ability to sing are caused by sex differences in the forebrain's song nuclei
 The sex differences become established at the time of hatching
 Due to this early experiences effect adult sexual behaviour in birds

 Good early nutrition and low stress are important for male birds to develop good singing abilities
 Poor songs are typically unattractive to female birds
53
Q

Explain what sexual imprinting is and it’s adaptive value

A

Sexual imprinting is the rapid learning of cues associated with adults of the opposite sex of your own species

Sexual imprinting has the adaptive functions of:

       - training species recognition into animals
       - avoiding inbreeding
54
Q

What are the 2 types of functional explanations and explain what they mean?

A

Proximate functions
Proximate functions are functions that benefit/increase successful sexual behaviour and copulation

Ultimate functions
Ultimate functions are functions that benefit/increase adaptive fitness

55
Q

In some species the act of copulation acts as a positive reinforcer for both species, explain how this happens?

A

In some species the act of copulation acts as a positive reinforcer for both sexes
This is because the act of sex feels good for both the individuals which means that they’re both likely to try again
Copulation is a powerful reinforcer for both sexes
This means that both sexes show very high motivation when causal factors are optimal

56
Q

What does some evidence show about neurological pathways during and after sex?

A

Some evidence shows that all neurological pathways are stimulated during and after copulation are also stimulated:

            - in humans during drug recreation
            - associated with positive affective states
57
Q

What is seen in a few rare species with non-oestruos females and explain why this is seen?

A

In a few rare species even non-oestruos females remain sexually motivated
This suggests that copulation must be pleasurable for those animals since there is no other biological reason to do so if the act has no chance to lead to pregnancy

58
Q

Give some examples of animal species that engage in sexual behaviour even when the female is not in oestrus

A 
Humans
Bonobos
Chimpanzees
Dolphins
      Bottle-nosed dolphins are also known to do male-male copulation
59
Q

Give 2 examples that suggest that animals perform sexual behaviour to meet a need

A

In ferrets being in persistent estrous in the absence of mating is very dangerous for female ferrets
This is because the developed ovarian follicles will secrete a lot of oestrogen which will become toxic if oestrogen is at high concentrations for a long period of time
The excess oestrogen will cause the female ferrets fur to thin and bone marrow suppression
This means that the bone marrow will stop producing blood cells which can lead to anemia and infection
This means if female ferrets can’t mate during oestrus they can die from lack of copulation

In male rats it’s know that if they’re allowed to mate and then forced into a 4 week sexual abstinence they’ll:
- show signs of depression
- be more motivated to take recreational drugs offered to them
In sex-naïve virgin male rats of the same age they do not show the above signs
This shows that male rats need to have the experience first or they won’t suffer in a period of abstinence

60
Q

What do the 2 examples of how animals perform sexual behaviour to meet a need tell us?

A

They show that copulation provides pleasure but is also done to satisfy internal built-in needs of the individual

61
Q

Why might copulation be painful?

A

Copulation may also be necessary to induce ovulation in some species
In some species copulation is painful but necessary to induce ovulation
Copulation is necessary to induce ovulation in most carnivore species

62
Q

Give an example of an animal where copulation is painful for the female but necessary for them to undergo ovulation

A

Cats

63
Q

What is the Bruce effect?

A

The Bruce effect is where the mere presence of a male can induce termination of a pregnancy

64
Q

True or false

Copulation in some species can also be used to induce termination of pregnancy

A

True

65
Q

How might copulation also be done as a way of preventing other males from mating with the female?

A

This is because in some species the male will also ejaculate a substance to plug the females vagina to prevent other males fertilising the females ovum
This can be seen with ‘plugs’ in rodents

In other species the males penis has a feature that basically traps the penis inside the female for a set period of time
This is seen in candids with their copulatory ‘tie’

66
Q

What is the ultimate function of sexual behaviour in terms of adaptive value?

A

The ultimate function of sexual behaviour in terms of adaptive value are not just to produce offspring but also to produce successful offspring who themselves produce lots of offspring

67
Q

Why is the adaptive value of sexual behaviour especially important to females?

A

1) Females produce fewer gametes
For a female any conception represents a large percentage of their total maximum lifetime reproductive output
For a male any conception represents just a small percentage of their maximum total lifetime reproductive output

2) Females invest more in rearing offspring usually
The ratio of reproductively available males to reproductively available females is very male-biased
Due to this males are in competition with other males while females can be choosy

68
Q

What is the ratio of reproductively available males to reproductively available females known as?

A

Operational sex ratio

The ratio of reproductively available males to reproductively available females is known as the operational sex ratio

69
Q

True or false

The operational sex ratio is always female biased

A

False

The operational sex ratio is always male biased

70
Q

How does a male skewed operational sex ratio alter male sexual behaviours?

A

For males their Proceptive behaviours has to be very persuasive since the female won’t just mate with anyone
Due to this, sexual behaviour should maximise a males chances of producing successful offspring, while minimising the chances that other males will be successful

71
Q

Give some examples of adaptions to increase a males own reproductive success

A

Blocking the females vagina to prevent other males from copulating
Being able to unblock the females vagina to be able to copulate successfully
Produce larger ejaculate
Outcompete other males

72
Q

How does a male-biased operational sex ratio affect female behaviour?

A

For females male skewed operational sex ratios mean that each copulation could lead to a big investment
Due to each copulation potentially leading to a big investment for the female it makes functional sense to be picky about who to mate with
Females can be picky because there’s a surplus of males ready and willing to mate with

73
Q

What 4 things do females take into consideration when choosing a mate?

A

1) Inbreeding avoidance
2) Signs of a good ability to protect the female and provide resources
3) Signs of good genes to pass to their offspring
4) Female choice makes functional sense

74
Q

How do some species females avoid inbreeding?

A

The smell of sweat can let you know how closely related you are to each other
The females will smell the sweat and choose the males with the histocompatibility complex that are most different from their own
In choosing males with different histocompatibility complexes to them the females increase genetic heterogeneity in their offsprings histocompatibility complexes
In doing so choosing a male with with different histocompatibility complexes will increase their offsprings immune protection from disease

75
Q

Give examples of animals that can detect histocompatibility complex type via smell

A

Humans
In tests with humans if the female was on the pill then their ability to discriminate between histocompatibility complexes was lost

Mice

76
Q

Give examples of sings of a good ability to protect the female and provide resources

A

Fighting ability
Good territories
Good ability to provide food
Dominance

77
Q

Which mating system uses signs of a good ability to protect the female and provide resources?

A

Polygyny

78
Q

Which mating system used signs of good genes to pass to their offspring as a female choice criteria?

A

Promiscuity

It is also used by females of polygynous and monogamous species as well in varying degrees

79
Q

Give some examples of signs of good genes to pass to their offspring

A

Signs of good health and low parasite levels
Symmetry
Good songs in birds
Low anxiety

80
Q

If a male with better signs of good genes is seen what do some species females do?

A

Some species females can do things to prevent pregnancy if a better male is seen
Examples of this are:
- Bruce effect
- Expelling sperm and/or plugs

81
Q

In some species of animal females may copulate with many males to induce paternity uncertainty, why is that?

A

Paternity uncertainty is done so that the offspring have more males to protect them
In some species males will help the offspring if it’s there’s or kill it if it’s not their own infant to induce the female to go back into estrous
So female promiscuity is hypothesised to confuse males into being nice and not killing the females offspring
This is more common in social species

82
Q

What do I mean by phylogenetic explanations of sexual behaviour?

A

A phylogenetic explanation will be about traits that confer success being more likely to be passed on leading to gradual changes along the branches of a family tree
The changes will be in terms of which specific behaviour and traits develop in that particular species

83
Q

What was Darwin’s opinion on sexual characteristics?

A

Darwin actually did not like sexual behaviours and in particular Darwin did not like sexual characteristics that are used in courtship
This is because at the time Darwin saw the evolution of sexual characteristics as going against natural selection

Darwin actually wrote in his field journal that the sight of a peacock’s feathers made him feel sick
This is because some sexual characteristics like the peacock’s tail seem to increase the individuals risk of predation in Darwin’s view

84
Q

Darwin was wrong about sexual behaviour due to the adaptive value of the sexual behaviour
What 2 things prove Darwin was wrong?

A

1) For a female any conception represents a large percentage of their total maximum lifetime reproductive output
Vice versa for males
Thus picky females will be fitter

2) The operational sex ratio is very male-biased
Thus attractive males and competitive males will be fitter

85
Q

Sexual behaviour is a special form of natural selection known as what?

A

Sexual selection

Sexual behaviour is a special form of natural selection now referred to as sexual selection

86
Q

What does sexual selection show?

A

Sexual selection shows us that there’s a differential fitness based on an individual’s ability to mate
Basically the fitness of an individual varies based on its ability to mate

87
Q

What are the 2 different types of selective pressures on an individual in terms of sexual selection?

A

1) Intrasexual selection
Direct competition between members of 1 sex for mates
This is usually between competitions between males to gain access to females

2) Intersexual selection
Intersexual selection is driven by mate choice
This mainly focuses on differential attraction to particular characteristics in the opposite sex
Intersexual selection is usually driven by the females choosing

88
Q

What is intrasexual selection about?

A

Intrasexual sexual selection is about the direct competition between members of 1 sex for mates

Intrasexual selection is where individuals directly compete with other members of their own sex to gain access to a mating opportunity

89
Q

Intrasexual sexual selection pressures on males has led to what in males?

A

Males being larger than females
Males being better armed than females
Males being more aggressive than females
Males are especially more aggressive in breeding seasons

90
Q

True or false

Intrasexual sexual selection also happens in females but is little understood

A

True

91
Q

Which mating system is male-male aggression especially seen in?

A

Polygyny

92
Q

What does harm-holding species mean?

A

Harm-holding = they’ve developed traits/characteristics to injure their opponent

93
Q

What can non-harm-holding species males compete with?

A

Body size
Large testis
Faster swimming sperm

94
Q

What 2 things can comparing the relative weight of an average male testes compared to the average male body weight give us an idea of?

A

1) The type of mating system used by that species

2) The intensity of male-male competition in that species

95
Q

What is Intersexual selection driven by?

A

Intersexual selection is driven by mate choice
It’s usually the females picking which male they want
It’s usually the females driving Intersexual selection

96
Q

What does intersexual selection focus on and how does it link to evolution?

A

Intersexual selection focuses on differential attraction to particular characteristics in the opposite sex
This means it’s the study of what in the opposite sex attracts an individual to them, and what about that trait/characteristic attracts the individual to it the most
This selection of 1 sex choosing the most desirable trait, and versions of that trait, in the opposite sex drives the evolution and development of that trait, and makes it spread throughout the species population

97
Q

Give some examples of intersexual selection

A

Birds prefer elaborate ornaments and songs

In some species females pick a male based on their resources

Some females prefer males with age and status

Animal Behaviour And Cognition (13 decks)

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