Social

Question 1

Social Perception

Schemata

Impression Formation

Answer 1

cognitive structures that organize past information and experience and provide a framework for processing and understanding new information and experiences.

Question 2

Social Perception

central traits

Impression Formation

Answer 2

warmth and competence are central traits to descriptions of people that change the perception of the rest of the traits mentioned

Asch

Question 3

Social Perception

social context

Impression Formation

Answer 3

Rosenhan’s pseudopatient study demonstrated the effects of the social context on impression formation.

Once admitted to a mental hospital, the pseudopatients were viewed, especially by hospital staff, as being schizophrenic even though they did not exhibit any abnormal behaviors.

Question 4

Social Perception

fundamental attribution bias

Attributional Biases

Answer 4

the tendency for an observer to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about an actor’s behavior.

Question 5

Social Perception

actor-observer effect

Attributional Biases

Answer 5

In causal attribution, the tendency for an observer to overestimate the effects of dispositional factors when making attributions about an actor’s behavior but to overestimate the effects of situational factors when making self-attributions.

Question 6

Social Perception

self-serving bias

Attributional Biases

Answer 6

refers to the tendency to attribute our own successes to dispositional (internal) factors and failures to situational (external) factors.

Question 7

Social Perception

Representativeness

Heuristics

Answer 7

basing your judgment of something on how representative/similar it is to the the category (while ignoring base rate data)

Question 8

Social Perception

Availability

Heuristics

Answer 8

predicting an event is more likely to occur if you’re able to recall many examples of its occurence

Question 9

Social Perception

Simulation

Heuristics

Answer 9

predicting something is more likely based on mental simulations/imaginations that it could happen

Question 10

Social Perception

Anchoring and Adjustment

Heuristics

Answer 10

initial value (anchor) and then adjusting it up or down from the starting value

Question 11

Social Perception

Base Rate Fallacy

Cognitive Errors

Answer 11

The base rate fallacy is the tendency to underutilize or ignore relevant statistical (base rate) data and to rely, instead, on irrelevant information when making probabilistic judgments about an event or characteristic.

Question 12

Social Perception

Confirmation Bias

Cognitive Errors

Answer 12

The confirmation bias is the tendency to seek or pay attention to information that confirms one’s hypothesis or current beliefs and to ignore disconfirming information.

Question 13

Social Perception

Illusory Correlation

Cognitive Errors

Answer 13

false belief that two characteristics or events are related when they are actually not

Question 14

Social Perception

False Consensus

Cognitive Errors

Answer 14

overestimate similarity of beliefs of others to our own beliefs

Question 15

Social Perception

Gambler’s Fallacy

Cognitive Errors

Answer 15

predicting the likelihood of a particular chance event based on occurence of previous events

Question 16

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Misery Loves Miserable Company

Affiliation and Attraction

Answer 16

Schachter concluded that people like to affiliate most with others who are in similar circumstances (e.g., anxious people prefer to affiliate with other anxious people).

Question 17

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Gender Differences

Affiliation and Attraction

Answer 17

The research has shown that women generally spend more time than men engaged in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same gender, and may affiliate more than men do in public places.

Question 18

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Law of Attraction

Affiliation and Attraction

Answer 18

According to Byrne’s (1971) law of attraction, we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interacting with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes and is, therefore, more likely to generate positive affect.

Byrne

Question 19

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Gain-Loss Effect

Affiliation and Attraction

Answer 19

The gain-loss effect predicts that people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increasing liking for them and to be least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking for them.

Question 20

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Attraction in Romantic Relationships/Sexual Jealousy

Close Relationships

Answer 20

primary goal for men is to pass on genes, primary goal for women is to secure resources for offspring

Evolutionary Theory

Question 21

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Emotion-In-Relationships Model

Close Relationships

Answer 21

This model of emotion provides an explanation for the experience of strong emotions in close relationships and proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors.

Question 22

Social: Interpersonal Relationships

Social Exchange

Maintenance and Dissolution of Friendships

Answer 22

Social exchange theory predicts that a person’s decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship’s costs and rewards - i.e., a person is likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than rewards.

Question 23

Social: Self in Social Context

Self-Schemas/Barnum Effect

Self-Concept

Answer 23

The Barnum effect is the tendency to accept vague, general descriptions of oneself (e.g., a horoscope) as accurate.

Question 24

Social: Self in Social Context

Self-Perception Theory

Self-Concept

Answer 24

The epinephrine studies supported the predictions of self-perception theory by confirming that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.

Question 25

# Social: Self in Social Context Social Comparison | Self-Concept

Answer 25

Social comparison theory predicts that people use other (usually similar) people as sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors.

Question 26

# Social: Self in Social Context Self-verification theory | Self-Concept

Answer 26

predicts that people prefer to receive feedback from others that is consistent with their own self-evaluations.

Question 27

# Social: Self in Social Context Self-monitoring | Self-Presentation

Answer 27

need and ability to manage impressions that other people form of them | high in self-monitoring concerned with public self ## Footnote low in self-monitoring concerned with private self

Question 28

# Social: Self in Social Context Self-handicapping | Self-Presentation

Answer 28

engaging in behaviors that will providing an excuse for anticipated failure

Question 29

# Social: Self in Social Context Self-efficacy | Perceived Self-Control

Answer 29

sense of competence and effectiveness

Question 30

# Social: Self in Social Context Hardiness | Perceived Self-Control

Answer 30

the personality trait of hardiness acts as a **protective factor** against stress and has three primary characteristics: * commitment (a sense of purpose and involvement in one's relationships and life events); * challenge (an openness to new experiences and change); and * control (the belief that one has the ability to influence or manage life events). | Kobasa et al. (1982)

Question 31

# Social: Social Influence Autokinetic Effect | Types of Social Influence

Answer 31

stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room- **convergence effect** based on the votes of the confederates | Sherif ## Footnote **informational social influence** vs **normative social influence**

Question 32

# Social: Social Influence Compliance with Requests | Types of Social Influence

Answer 32

foot-in-the-door vs. door-in-the-face

Question 33

# Social: Social Influence Obedience to Authority | Types of Social Influence

Answer 33

Milgram's famous and controversial studies evaluated participants' willingness to obey the direct order or command of a high-status individual (authority) even when doing so seemed to harm another person. | Milgram

Question 34

# Social: Social Influence minority influence | Responses to Social Influence

Answer 34

The research shows that a minority can influence the majority by maintaining a consistent (but not dogmatic) position.

Question 35

# Social: Social Influence psychological reactance | Responses to Social Influence

Answer 35

Psychological reactance is the tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of what is expected or requested.

Question 36

# Social: Social Influence Coercive | Bases of Social Power

Answer 36

has control over punishments

Question 37

# Social: Social Influence Reward | Bases of Social Power

Answer 37

control over valued rewards and resources

Question 38

# Social: Social Influence Expert | Bases of Social Power

Answer 38

has superior ability, skills, knowledge

Question 39

# Social: Social Influence Referent | Bases of Social Power

Answer 39

target is attracted to, likes, or identifies with influencing agent

Question 40

# Social: Social Influence Legitimate | Bases of Social Power

Answer 40

target believes that influencing agent has legitimate authority

Question 41

# Social: Social Influence Informational | Bases of Social Power

Answer 41

possesses specific information needed by target

Question 42

# Social: Social Influence coercive, reward, expert, referent, legitimate, informational

Answer 42

bases of social power

Question 43

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Theory of Planned Behavior | Attitudes and Behavior

Answer 43

The theory of planned behavior predicts that attitudes are accurate predictors of behavior when the attitude measure assesses all three components of the **behavioral intention** * the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior * what the person believes other people think he or she should do * person's perceived behavioral control.

Question 44

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Characteristics of the Communicator | Factors that Influence Attitude Change

Answer 44

Research on attitude change has confirmed that credible communicators are more persuasive and that one factor that contributes to credibility is **trustworthiness** (e.g., if the person is arguing against his/her own best interests, the person may seem more trustworthy).

Question 45

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Characteristics of the Communication | Factors that Influence Attitude Change

Answer 45

* the level of discrepancy between the positions of the recipient and the message * the order in which the two sides of an argument are presented (primacy/recency effects) * whether the message is intentionally delivered or is overheard

Question 46

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance Theory | Theories of Attitude Change

Answer 46

cognitive dissonance theory proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort (dissonance) that motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by **changing his/her cognitions.** | Festinger

Question 47

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Balance Theory | Theories of Attitude Change

Question 48

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Elaboration Likelihood Model | central and peripheral

Answer 48

ELM is a cognitive theory of attitude change that distinguishes between two information processing routes - **central and peripheral**. Use of the central route is likely when the

Question 49

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change central method | ELM

Answer 49

* listener's motivation is high, * the listener has the ability to process the information contained in the message * the listener is in a neutral or slightly negative mood.

Question 50

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change peripheral method | ELM

Answer 50

* listener is unmotivated * listener lacks the ability to process the information * the listener is in a positive mood.

Question 51

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Social Judgment Theory | Theories of Attitude Change

Answer 51

Social judgment theory predicts that people have three "categories of judgment" by which they evaluate persuasive messages: * a latitude of acceptance, * a latitude of non-commitment, and * a latitude of rejection people are most likely to be persuaded when the message is within their latitude of acceptance.

Question 52

# Social: Attitudes and Attitude Change Attitude Inoculation | Resistance to Persuasion

Answer 52

inoculated partcipants were more likely to resist persuasion

Question 53

# Social: Aggression Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis | Theories of Aggression

Answer 53

This hypothesis proposes that aggression is motivated by frustration, and a revised version predicts that frustration leads to aggression in the presence of aggressive cues.

Question 54

# Social: Aggression Social Learning Theory | Theories of Aggression

Answer 54

Social learning theory predicts that learning can occur simply by observing the behavior of a model. It has been used to explain the acquisition of aggressive behaviors (e.g., the effects of media violence).

Question 55

# Social: Aggression Effects of Media Violence | Theories of Aggression

Answer 55

The research has generally confirmed that viewing media violence increases aggression by providing viewers with models for aggressive behavior. In addition, media violence can affect attitudes as well as behavior - e.g., frequent viewing of media violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a victim of violence.

Question 56

# Social: Aggression Effects of Pornography | Theories of Aggression

Answer 56

Studies investigating the effects of pornography have shown that, while exposure to mild erotica may reduce aggressiveness, exposure to pornography with violent themes tends to increase aggressive behaviors toward women as well as increase acceptance of rape myths and the adoption of callous attitudes toward sexual violence

Question 57

# Social: Aggression Deindividuation | Factors that Affect Aggression

Answer 57

Deindividuation is a state of relative anonymity that allows an individual to feel unidentifiable. It has been associated with increases in antisocial behavior, apparently because the deindividuated person's behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of evaluation, or other inhibitory controls.

Question 58

# Social: Aggression Social Roles/Prison Study | Factors that Affect Aggression

Answer 58

Zimbardo's prison simulation study demonstrated that people alter their behaviors to fit their assigned roles.

Question 59

# Social: Aggression Catharsis | Factors that Affect Aggression

Answer 59

The catharsis hypothesis predicts that an act of aggression reduces an individual's arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that he/she will act aggressively again in the near future. The research has not been supportive of this claim.

Question 60

# Social: Prejudice Authoritarian Personality | Causes of Prejudice

Answer 60

political extremism are the outcome of an authoritarian personality: rigidity, cynicism, committment to conventional values, intolerance of ambiguity

Question 61

# Social: Prejudice Intergroup Conflict | Causes of Prejudice

Answer 61

Superordinate goals can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively and have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict.

Question 62

# Social: Prejudice Group Identity | Causes of Prejudice

Answer 62

group identity is an important part of a person's self-concept, people want to maintain a positive group identity | Tajfel and Turner

Question 63

# Social: Prejudice Levels of Racism | Racism

Answer 63

Several investigators argue, to understand the effects of racism, it is necessary to recognize that it operates on multiple levels. These levels may be categorized as cultural, institutional, interpersonal, and internalized.

Question 64

# Social: Prejudice Symbolic Racism | Racism

Answer 64

racism has gradually taken the place of "old-fashioned" racism and that symbolic racists believe that African Americans and other minorities violate such traditional American values as individualism, self-reliance, and the work ethic. They also deny their prejudice and attribute the social and economic problems of minority group members to internal factors (e.g., a lack of effort and discipline). | Sears et al.

Question 65

# Social: Prejudice Legislation | Methods for Reducing Prejudice

Answer 65

the state needs to legislate out racism before people actually change

Question 66

# Social: Prejudice Intergroup Contact | Methods for Reducing Prejudice

Answer 66

The contact hypothesis proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met: Members of the different groups have equal status and power, members are provided with opportunities that disconfirm negative stereotypes about members of the other group, and intergroup cooperation is necessary to achieve mutual (superordinate) goals.

Question 67

# Social: Prosocial Behavior Evolutionary Theory | Origins of Prosocial Behavior

Answer 67

kin altruism: people will give to their own group even if it is sacrificial to the self

Question 68

# Social: Prosocial Behavior Social Norms | Origins of Prosocial Behavior

Answer 68

norm of reciprocity vs norm of social reciprocity (helping people whether or not they've helped us)

Question 69

# Social: Prosocial Behavior Robber's Cave | Types of Prosocial Behavior

Answer 69

Sherif's research with boys at a summer camp demonstrated that the most effective way to reduce intergroup hostility is having the members of the groups cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal.

Question 70

# Social: Prosocial Behavior Jigsaw Method | Types of Prosocial Behavior

Answer 70

The jigsaw method is a method of learning in which assignments must be completed by teams with each team member being assigned a different piece of the project. It has been found to improve intergroup relations, cooperation, and self-esteem as well as academic achievement, especially for members of minority groups.

Question 71

# Social: Prosocial Behavior Bystander Intervention/Apathy | Types of Prosocial Behavior

Answer 71

Bystander apathy refers to the tendency of people to not intervene in emergency situations when others are present. It has been attributed to three factors: social comparison, evaluation apprehension, and diffusion of responsibility.

Question 72

# Social: The Social Environment Lewin's Field Theory | Field Theory

Answer 72

Lewin's field theory describes human behavior as being a product of interdependent factors in the person and his or her physical and social environment.

Question 73

# Social: The Social Environment Types of Intraindividual Conflict | Field Theory

Answer 73

Lewin (1931) and Miller (1944) distinguished between four intraindividual (motivational) conflicts: * approach-approach * avoidance-avoidance * approach-avoidance * double approach-avoidance Of these, the double approach-avoidance (which occurs when we have to choose between two goals that both have positive and negative qualities) is the most difficult type to resolve.

Question 74

# Social: The Social Environment Zeigarnik Effect | Field Theory

Answer 74

The Zeigarnik effect is the tendency to remember interrupted and unfinished tasks better than completed ones, especially in non-stressful situations.

Question 75

# Social: The Social Environment Effects of the Ambient Environment | Air Pollution/High Temp/Noise

Answer 75

air pollution: decreased cognitive performance high temp: frustration, aggressiveness Noxious/Excessive Noise: stress and irritability, reduced when they believe they can control it

Question 76

# Social: The Social Environment Effects of Crowding | Environmental Effects on Behavior

Answer 76

Crowded conditions tend to enhance positive experiences and increase the unpleasantness of negative experiences. Men seem to be more stressed by crowded conditions than women and are more likely to react with increased aggressiveness, apparently because men require more personal space.

Question 77

* approach-approach * avoidance-avoidance * approach-avoidance * double approach-avoidance

Question 78

* approach-avoidance

Question 79

double approach-avoidance

Answer 80

Equity theory predicts that motivation (e.g., motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by a comparison of the input/outcome ratios of oneself and one's partner.

Question 81

overjustification hypothesis

Answer 81

predicts that, when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease.

Question 82

# Social: The Social Environment approach-avoidance | Types of Intraindividual Conflict

Answer 82

when a single goal has both positive and negative qualities

Question 82

# Social: Interpersonal Relationships Equity Theory | Maintenance and Dissolution of Friendships

Answer 82

Equity theory predicts that motivation (e.g., motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by a comparison of the input/outcome ratios of oneself and one's partner.

Question 82

# Social: The Social Environment avoidance-avoidance | Types of Intraindividual Conflict

Answer 82

two equally unattractive goals, leads to indecision

Question 82

# Social: The Social Environment double approach-avoidance | Types of Intraindividual Conflict

Answer 82

choosing between two things that both have good and bad

Question 82

# Social: Self in Social Context overjustification hypothesis | Self-Concept

Answer 82

predicts that, when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease.