soc chap 14-16

Question 1

What is Crime

Answer 1

Whereas deviance is a violation of norms that draws a negative reaction, crime is a kind of deviance where the norm being violated is one that is enacted and enforced by the state.

Definition - A violation of the law that is punishable by sanctions. It must involve a criminal act or omission, and criminal intent.

Question 2

What is Law

Answer 2

a system of rules to regulate behavior that is enforced through state and social institutions

Question 3

Sanctions

Answer 3

the penalty for disobeying or breaking a law

Question 4

Street crime vs white collar crime

Answer 4

Street crime is what people often call to mind when they think about crime, for example, robbery, burglary, and drug trafficking. We often associate street crime with those in the lower socio-economic strata. - true with burglary and armed robbery but not of drug crimes

White-collar crime is less often called to mind and includes crimes like fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading. We often associate white-collar crime with social elites and those in the upper socioeconomic strata. This is certainly true for some crimes like securities fraud, but many crimes we define as white-collar crime, like identity theft and credit card fraud, are committed by the middle class, lower class, or even street gangs

Question 5

The harms of property crimes

Answer 5

While many crimes can cause harm, we often consider street crimes, especially violent street crimes, to be the most dangerous

→ But many white-collar crimes are also harmful in significant ways. Offshore tax evasion has cost Canadians nearly $5 billion in lost tax revenue that could have been used to pay for social services or programs

Question 6

Ponzi scheme

Answer 6

–> An investment fraud where the fraudster pays returns to older investors by acquiring new investors.

• As these cases make clear, the effects of white-collar crime can be just as ruinous and far-reaching as street crime.
• Just because sometimes they’re without a clear victim does not mean they’re victimless

Question 7

Public law

Answer 7

A set of rules between individuals and society

• Criminal law is a type of public law. Crimes are considered wrongs against society rather than wrongs against individual people because crime represents the violation of some of society’s most sacred rules, such as killing
• The crime represents a threat to social order and not only a threat to a single person

Question 8

Private law

Answer 8

Where the harm is not between a person and society but between private individuals or groups.

• If you file a lawsuit and seek damages or monetary compensation against a company that makes a product that causes you harm, or you sue someone for compensation to pay for medical expenses because they caused a car accident in which you were injured, you are engaging in private law.

Question 9

Law on the books

Answer 9

• The formal, official written legal statutes, legislation, acts, court decisions, and regulations, as well as rules for their enforcement
• Law on the books is very different than in action as there are many interpretations of the law that affect the outcome of trials

Question 10

Law in action

Answer 10

• The decisions, actions, or experiences individuals or organizations have that involve the law. These can influence whether the law or legal consequences might be important for how decisions are made. Decisions are the action part of “law in action”
• From a sociological point of view, how laws are applied and how people understand and engage with the law are important sociological considerations, perhaps even more important than what is written in our legal codes.

Question 11

Delinquency

Answer 11

minor crimes committed by young people

Question 12

Criminogenic

Answer 12

A system, place, or situation producing or leading to a crime

Question 13

Crime as a social construction

Answer 13

• Like other norms, deviance is socially constructed: it is the product of a particular place, time, and culture.
• Sociologists, especially conflict and critical perspectives, have shown the importance of power when it comes to the social construction of crime. Scholars have argued that laws and the legal system represent the interests of the ruling class, and that law enforcement is selectively practised.
• Crimes of the upper class, by contrast, are less likely to be considered illegal or be policed.

→ A classic example of the interconnection between class, power, and crime is the development and application of vagrancy laws. Enforced on homeless populations. Vagrancy laws were also applied for moral reasons like alcoholism or social reasons like fear of crime or to preserve ways of life. Uniformly, these laws were used to target those in the lower classes.

Question 14

Behavior and norms over times

Answer 14

A second important sociological point is that, just as norms are subject to change, so too are our definitions of criminal and problematic behavior.

Question 15

What is UCR + current crime trends

Answer 15

This data comes from the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) survey, which includes criminal incidents solved by police and information about people charged with committing a crime. When you hear about homicide rates or rates of gun crime in the news, they are referring to UCR crime rates

→ You can see a several decades decline in crime rates, with a slight recent increase driven mostly by non-violent crimes.

–> crime severity has increased due to sexual assault cases. could be more crime or more reporting

• Sociologists are skeptical of official measures of crime because they might reflect biases rather than present an accurate picture of criminal behaviour.

Question 16

Crime funnel

Answer 16

An image representing the amount of crime detected or undetected or reported to the justice system
- Victimization data show that only about 31% of crime is reported to the police

Dark figure of crime –> crime detected by people –> crime reported to police –> recorded crime –> cleared crime

Question 17

Dark figure of crime

Answer 17

The amount of crime that is unreported or undiscovered

Question 18

Victimization surveys

Answer 18

• A survey where respondents are asked whether or not they’ve been victims of crime
• Asking Canadians about victimization experiences documents the crimes that are not reported to the police and therefore not included in the UCR
• A method developed by sociologists to help understand the dark figure of crime

Question 19

Self report surveys

Answer 19

Measures crime by asking people to report their criminal behavior on anonymous surveys or questionnaires

Social scientists have discovered that people are quite willing to self-report their criminal behavior on surveys and questionnaires, making this a useful approach for uncovering information about crime that may be missed by official statistics

Question 20

The strongest predictor of crime

Answer 20

Genetics together with social and environmental factors are strong predictors of crime

Question 21

Strain theory and anomie - functionalist

Answer 21

Structural strain: society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially acceptable goals and those without the means to achieve those goals experience strain, leading to crime.

Social inequality prevents equal access to the socially acceptable means for achieving those goals. When there is a disjunction between societal goals and the acceptable means to achieve those goals, the social structure is said to be characterized by anomie.

Anomie: Merton’s anomie refers to the lack of fit between cultural goals and the means to achieve those goals. Anomie causes crime by creating strain.

Question 22

Routine activities theory - Functionalist

Answer 22

RAT shows that crime occurs when three things come together: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian

Criminologists have long known that leisure is connected to crime—young people with “nothing to do” will often get into trouble, hence why criminologist Ken Pease theorized the decrease in crime had to do with more youth staying indoors and passing their free time by playing video games

Question 23

Concentric zone theory + disorganization

Answer 23

Organized by commuter zone, residential zone, working class zone, transition zone, central business zone (in order largest to smallest)

Rates of delinquency are highest in the inner city, decreasing as one moves outward toward more affluent areas → Crime is tied to the transition zone, which is characterized by people coming and going. Even though populations fluctuate, crime does not decrease.

Socially disorganized neighborhoods
→ Street robbers choose these neighbourhoods based on the routine activities taking place there and because these neighbourhoods are known to robbers through their everyday routines.

Question 24

Social learning theory - Interactionalist

Answer 24

One example is social learning theory. People learn the techniques, motivations, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes favorable to crime by interacting with other people who support and engage in criminal behavior

But crime is not just learned from association with “bad companions”; it is also caused by exposure to people’s definition of crime as desirable behavior

Question 25

Labeling theory

Answer 25

Social groups define some actions as criminal and others as normal, and they create deviance by making rules and then applying those rules to other people in the form of labels

Labels can lead to the development of stigma and, ultimately, to the development of a master status around crime

• Stigma: A negative evaluation of a person that sets them apart as different in the eyes of others
• Secondary deviance: Deviance that form a basis for developing a negative self concept because of the public application of a negative label
  → but when labels are applied forcefully and publicly to an act of deviance, for example by arresting a young person for mischief and sending them to court, secondary deviance can occur

Question 26

Moral entrepreneur

Answer 26

Individuals or groups that work extensively to raise public awareness about a set of moral values deemed important to them.
- Moral entrepreneurs are active in the creation of rules and laws during periods of moral panic.

Question 27

Social bonding theory

Answer 27

Aspects of one’s life (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief) that prevent people from committing crimes.

Question 28

Radical feminism in crime

Answer 28

Radical feminism argues that patriarchal domination is the primary source of oppression. Men seek to control women’s sexuality through violence and abuse. Social change and crime reduction require the elimination of gender differences in power and opportunities

Question 29

Liberal feminism in crime

Answer 29

In contrast, liberal feminism argues that gender socialization is the main source of oppression. This theory states that belief in distinct gender roles and other traditional attitudes about men and women are responsible for social inequality.

Question 30

Socialist feminism in crime

Answer 30

Argues that economic structures combine with gender-based norms and roles to create oppression. Oppression varies by social class; for example, women who are discouraged from seeking education and who have low job status experience more violence. Change requires shifts in the economic system as well in gender roles and norms.

Question 31

Men vs women’s reaction to strain

Answer 31

Men and women exhibit different emotional and behavioral responses to strain. Men are more likely to externalize strain to others (assault), whereas women are more likely to internalize strain (self-harm)

Question 32

Social control

Answer 32

Social control perspectives attempt to explain conformity rather than criminal behaviour. According to social bonding theory, conformity is maintained through social bonds: those with prosocial attachments, ties to conformity, participation in conventional activities, and a belief in social values and norms will not engage in crime

Having low self-control, however, puts people at risk for criminal behaviour. Low self-control is the product of weak or ineffective socialization, particularly ineffective child rearing

What’s more, people with low self-control tend to put themselves in risky situations and are therefore more likely to be victims of crimes like fraud or violent crime

Question 33

Chain of courts

Answer 33

Most provinces and territories have lower courts (provincial and territorial courts), superior courts, and appeal courts. Above these courts sits the federal Supreme Court of Canada. Most criminal cases are heard in the lower courts, with more serious cases being heard in the superior courts

• Criminal courts play several roles: they determine if an accused is guilty or not guilty; they uphold due process rights of the accused; they determine punishment, and they are venues for plea-bargaining, where the accused person pleads guilty in exchange for a lighter sentence or for some charges to be dropped

Question 34

Due process

Answer 34

The requirement that the state respect the legal rights of all people and treat everyone fairly above the law.

Question 35

Sentencing

Answer 35

Sentencing is a complex process whereby a punishment is given to an offender who has been found guilty or who has pleaded guilty in court.

• The most common punishment is probation—release into the community under conditions like abiding by curfews and abstaining from substances—which is imposed in nearly 45% of guilty sentences for adults. Prison is imposed in almost 40% of cases, with most sentences lasting less than six months
• Judges consider the following principles when determining a sentence: denouncing the behavior; deterring the offender and others from crime; incapacitating the offender by removing them from society; rehabilitating offenders; repairing the harm causes; and promoting responsibility in the offender

Question 36

Why do we have punishments for crime?

Answer 36

Punishment is not a natural consequence of crime, nor is it a logical solution to the problem of crime. Instead, punishment is tied to economic, political, cultural, and social forces
→ And prisons were instruments of those in power to keep control over the lower classes and to exploit their labor for profit

Instead, prisons emerged alongside other institutions in the industrial era, like factories, hospitals, and schools. All involve discipline: controlling space and movement, providing orderly environments, observing people, compelling them to conform to social norms, and keeping records about them
→ this concept of punishment is relevant today among marginalized communities

Question 37

Tough on crime politics

Answer 37

This tough-on-crime thinking and the concerns about community risk have also reduced the use of community-based correction

An example of a community-based correction is parole, which is an early release from prison into the community under the supervision of a parole officer. Parole is meant to facilitate reintegration into the community by allowing the offender to find a job, a place to live or return to school.
→ parole is successful around 70% of the time to prevent recidivism

Question 38

Downsides of prisons

Answer 38

1. They’re expensive → It costs about $116,000 a year to incarcerate an offender federally and nearly $95,000 a year in a provincial jail, compared to only $18,000 a year to supervise them in the community through an alternative to prison
2. Evidence shows that people released from prison tend to re-offend. → The recidivism rate in Canada, measured two years after someone is released from prison, is 23%, down from 40% over a decade ago
3. And decades of research has shown that longer prisons sentences do more harm than good, and do not reduce crime rates or protect the public

Question 39

Recidivism

Answer 39

the rate at which people commit new crimes upon release from prison or supervision

Question 40

Prison’s effect on communities

Answer 40

While incarceration keeps potentially dangerous people off the street, it also damages the underlying social bonds of communities and eliminates any good a person could have done in their community.

Incarcerating these individuals, especially for non-violent crime, leads to the recruitment of replacements, accelerating criminal involvement in those communities

It also causes emotional and psychological harm to families, especially children who often begin to underperform at school or exhibit signs of emotional distress when a parent is incarcerated.

It reduces lifelong earnings and job prospects through the stigma of a criminal record and challenges to completing education. Overall, one of the best predictors of crime rates in a neighborhood is the number of people returning from prison

Question 41

Alternatives to prison

Answer 41

Probation is one example. Electronic monitoring is another, where offenders are fixed with a GPS monitor that tracks their location and movement and ensures they follow conditions.

Some alternatives repair the harm done to the victim, such as through community service work and restorative justice initiatives, while others provide treatment to offenders in the community, such as mental health support or substance abuse treatment.

A downside to some of these alternatives is that they place offenders under sometimes onerous restrictions that make it difficult to function in the community without violating a condition.

Question 42

Indigenous justice

Answer 42

Many Indigenous notions of justice focus on addressing underlying causes of behavior through reconciliation, restoration, and community-based resolutions
–> Sanctions were enforced through kinship ties, typically family members, extended family, or members of the same clan. This meant that healing, reconciliation, and reintegration were priorities for these communities; even with very serious crimes, the first reaction was not to inflict pain or seek vengeance since the offender was also family and a member of the community

The Hollow Water Community Holistic Circle Healing: –> Many of the community members believe that incarceration is a way for offenders to hide from, rather than face, responsibility for the harms they’ve caused. Rather, offenders are expected to face the pain they caused, but in a context of respect and support. This program has been a great success—of the four dozen or so offenders admitted to the program, only about two have offended again

Question 43

Situational crime prevention

Answer 43

If criminals have opportunities, it is your job to increase the effort of crime, risk of commiting crime, reduce reward, reduce provocation of crime ex hiding rewards, reduce excuses of crime ex. Putting up signs

Question 44

Deterrence

Answer 44

• Increase certainty, severity or celerity of punishment
• Crime occurs because benefits outweigh the cost
  –> Severity is not the most effective, certainty is.

Question 45

Biomedical model of healthcare

Answer 45

focuses on health strictly in terms of biology to the exclusion of social and psychological factors.
→ Dominant western healthcare model

Question 46

Social determinants of health

Answer 46

Specific social and economic factors that influence health outcomes, such as socioeconomic status and race.
→ Indeed, social factors have proven to be more important in determining health and well-being than medical advancement
→ The World Health Organization, for example, defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Question 47

Disease

Answer 47

An objective biological problem
→ This understanding of disease comes from the biomedical model, which makes several assumptions about disease and health: it treats illness as a biological condition, assuming a specific cause for every disease and that curing illness is a matter of finding the right drug or therapy; it asserts that bodies and minds are separate, and it treats the body as a machine in that parts can be fixed or replaced when broken.

Question 48

Illness

Answer 48

the personal experience of being unwell, which is often socially and culturally conditioned.

Question 49

Smoking in Canada (general)

Answer 49

Smoking continues to be a major health issue in Canada, despite how smoking rates have largely declined over the past several decades
→ . Currently, 15% of Canadians are smokers and, while this is up from 13% in 2015, the trend in smoking since 1999 has been a decrease in smokers of about 3% per year

Question 50

Vaping

Answer 50

Vaping is the use of an e-cigarette to inhale the aerosol (vapor) of a nicotine-infused flavored liquid heated in a stick or pen.

• Currently, about 1% of Canadians are daily e-cigarette users. Young Canadians are more likely to have tried vaping than smoking, and rates of vaping increase with age among young Canadians. For example, 29% of 20- to 24-year-olds have tried vaping
• From the sleek designs of vaping pens to their seamless compatibility with modern technology (they can be recharged using USB ports) to the young people featured in vaping ads, to the variety of flavors like candy floss, bubble gum, and lemonade, vaping appears to be marketed to younger people rather than adults who wish to shed their cigarette addiction
• EVALI is a severe lung illness characterized by shortness of breath, chest pain, vomiting, fever, and lung abnormalities that are associated with vaping.
• Scholars speculate that it could be from toxic metals like nickel, lead, and chromium in the heating coils, an additive to the vaping liquid, a contaminant, or a lung-crippling oil residue → the contents of vaping liquids are unregulated, making it difficult to track its ingredients
• Dozens of deaths, thousands of injuries from vaping

Question 50

Smoking among lower SES

Answer 50

Cigarette smoking is far more prevalent among those with lower SES and is one of the root causes of class-based disparities in health
→ Low SES populations are more likely to smoke daily, smoke more, and be less likely to quit

Factors:
1. First, smoking is more prevalent in working-class workplaces and more embedded in daily routines in these settings, such as routines built around coworkers (“smoke breaks”) that increase its prevalence and reinforce norms around smoking.

2. Higher education and income are associated with smoking bans in the home, whereas lower SES individuals may live in homes that are more smoker-friendly.
3. Third, peer and group influence may entrench positive views of smoking. → exposure to norms that encourage smoking
4. Fourth, smoking is more ingrained as a common part of working-class cultures and social identities. → makes smoking part of a low SES context in a way that it isn’t for other SES groups
5. Lastly, research shows that those who live in stressful conditions, like low SES individuals, are more likely to take up risk-increasing behaviours like smoking as coping mechanisms

Question 51

Alcohol consumption:

Answer 51

Having more than three drinks a day for men and two for women increases the risk of negative health outcomes.

Globally, alcohol consumption is the third-highest risk factor for disease, Canadians have 4,000 people die every year due to alcohol abuse, and 75% of the hospital deaths related to substance abuse are associated with alcohol

Unlike smoking, heavy drinking is more common the higher up the socioeconomic ladder you go. Higher SES households report more alcohol consumption and higher levels of heavy drinking. Paradoxically, though, lower SES heavy drinkers bear a disproportionate burden of harm for alcohol abuse, having the highest rates of hospitalization
→ This may be because of the greater consequences associated with living with lower income, including higher stress levels and fewer resources to cope with risk factors like poorer diet and less physical activity
→ Moreover, unsafe settings where alcohol is consumed, beverage choices, and the frequency of binge drinking may also explain this paradox.

Question 52

Obesity

Answer 52

Obesity is commonly measured using the Body Mass Index (BMI), a calculation based on the ratio of height to weight
→ Obesity rates in Canada have nearly doubled since the 1970s, and obesity has been referred to as an epidemic in the making

Obesity has been linked with a number of health problems and chronic diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, cancer, and diabetes
→ Beyond health concerns, obesity also affects social and economic well-being because of the pervasive stigma surrounding it → overweight people are seen as more immoral and lazy due stigma

Inequalities in access to employment, healthcare, and education due to widespread stereotypes that people with obesity are lazy, unmotivated, or lack self-discipline

Genes interact with the environment, and the combination of genetic susceptibility (40-70%), lifestyle choices around diet and exercise, and structural and environmental factors like food availability, employment and educational patterns, advertisements, and technology all play a role in explaining obesity.

Question 53

Social Determinants on obesity

Answer 53

Lifestyle “choices” are often constrained by social factors.

The widespread use of high-fructose corn syrup and saturated fats in processed foods, greater food consumption through social patterns like longer work weeks and cheap restaurant and fast food options that often serve greater portions of higher-fat food, the availability of food at all hours and places, like pharmacies and gas stations, advertising that reinforces high-calorie eating and refined, highly processed (and highly profitable) foods and drinks, a dramatic decline in physical activity with less time spent outdoors, etc

Add to these the effect of stress on the body and on eating patterns, the availability (or not) of high-quality, fresh food, or local risks that make outdoor physical activity potentially dangerous, and you can begin to see how social and environmental factors, and not just personal behaviour, shape health concerns like obesity.

Question 54

Health inequality

Answer 54

The difference in health or the spread of social determinants of health between different population groups

Fewer public services, higher pollution, higher crime rates, and fewer businesses offering access to fresh food; housing in low SES neighborhoods is more likely to be inadequate and dangerous due to overcrowding and unsafe physical and environmental conditions, like dampness or mold; low SES individuals are more likely to be exposed to psychosocial hazards and stressors at work and home, and many of those in the lower SES work in more unhealthy or dangerous conditions

Question 55

How social inclusion (which includes discrimination), and stigma, can also affect health.

Answer 55

Those who are marginalized or who face discrimination (like Indigenous people or LGBTQ+ Canadians) have the least favorable health outcomes in the country, despite our well-established universal health care system

→ More likely to die from just about every disease

Question 56

How is health inequality measured?

Answer 56

​​To compare countries, we often measure health inequality using the Gini coefficient,
→ The Gini coefficient measures economic inequality in a country, and countries where there are greater differences between rich and poor have worse health compared to countries that have more economic equality.
→ Higher gini score, more social inequality (0→1)

Life expectancy and infant mortality
→ Both of these are widely accepted as indicators of economic and social development and a central measure of population health. That is, developed countries with sophisticated health care systems and educated populations should show higher life expectancy and lower infant mortality

Indicates that the average life expectancy in Canada is 82.8 years (80.9 for men and 84.7 for women). However, your life expectancy in Canada depends on your SES. Those in the lowest income quintile (lowest SES) live 4.1 years less than those in the highest income quintile
→ Those in the lowest quintile also spend 11 less years in their health prime

Currently, the infant mortality rate in Canada is 4.8 per 1,000 live births. However, the infant mortality rate is higher among Canadians with the lowest income and education levels. Infant deaths immediately after birth are also higher among those with low SES, as are specific causes of death like sudden infant death syndrome and infection
→ Relative risk of an infant dying is 50%-60% higher in communities where households are characterized by low income and education levels. The lack of resources and pre- and post-natal education, poorer housing conditions, and less access to public and health services explains these income-based disparities.

Question 57

Chronic stress (low ses)

Answer 57

Chronic stress is stressors with no specific moment of onset but that persist over time, such as financial difficulty, living in overcrowded conditions, marital conflict, caregiver strain, and workplace problems like harassment or stressful schedules.

Chronic stress can wear down the body over time by lowering the immune system, increasing the prevalence of mental health issues like depression or insomnia, and impairing the healing process, making it difficult to recover quickly from illness

Question 58

The exception to wealth compared to health outcomes

Answer 58

The United States at the top of the figure, denoting that it has, among these wealthy nations, both the highest level of inequality and the worst social and health outcomes.

Canada, for example, has a substantially healthier population compared to the United States. We live longer and healthier lives and report better health-related quality of life overall → less economic disparity compared to the US

Reducing inequality could save millions a year in expenditures on health and reduce millions of deaths

Question 59

Where does Canadian healthcare fall short?

Answer 59

Overall, Canada is one of the healthiest countries in the world and fares well in categories of self-reported health, life expectancy, and mortality due to circulatory or respiratory diseases

Canada falls short in areas like mortality due to cancer or diabetes, and infant mortality.

But most top-performing countries achieve stronger health outcomes because they target broader social determinants of health: environmental care; health promotion programs that focus on lifestyle changes like more physical activity, better eating, and less smoking; safer driving habits and driving rules; better health education, especially regarding children; and reducing health inequalities associated with income and social status

Question 60

Life Course approach

Answer 60

Studying the physical and social risks during gestation, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood that affect health outcomes later in life

In many cases, exposure to health risks early in life will have effects on your health throughout your entire life, even if you manage to escape the negative conditions.

Living in poor neighborhoods can shorten the length of telomeres → Telomeres naturally shorten during the course of human aging, but that shortening can be accelerated by exposure to environmental stressors.

What’s more, the effects of living in disadvantaged neighborhoods persist even when personal income improves, showing that even when your own personal circumstances improve, living in a disadvantaged neighborhood still has lifelong negative effects on health

Question 61

Disadvantaged neighborhoods using life course

Answer 61

Early life experiences like stress, a lack of nutrients, infection, or smoking during gestation can have lifelong effects on a person’s health long before they are even born by reducing the supply of oxygen to the uterus.
→ People born under these conditions are more likely to experience coronary heart disease and diabetes later in life. Malnutrition and infection as an infant can reduce health, cognitive development, and educational attainment later in life.

Fewer financial resources and poor living conditions can affect vocabulary and reduce educational achievement, itself a determinant of health, and also create a higher likelihood of illness and disease across the lifespan

Question 62

Mental illness rates in Canada

Answer 62

But 1 in 2 Canadians will also experience mental illness in their lifetime—an equally alarming yet often unnoticed statistic → the same rate in which canadians are expected to develop cancer

Rates of mental illness for adults, particularly mood and anxiety disorders such as depression and generalized anxiety, are highest among those aged 20-29 (Mental Health Commission of Canada 2017). Furthermore, approximately one million Canadian children aged 9–19 are also affected by mental illness, with youth aged 15–24 the most likely group to develop a mental health condition

Emerging research shows that seniors also have elevated rates of mental health conditions.

Question 63

Mental illness

Answer 63

refers to a medically diagnosed illness that impairs an individual’s daily life

Question 64

Mental health

Answer 64

refers to an individual’s psychological and emotional well-being and ability to respond to common stressors.

Question 65

Who is most affected by mental illness?

Answer 65

Low mental health is more prevalent among the lower class, those with less education, and those unable to work

Income can influence mental health because of its influence on a person’s ability to meet basic needs and because it provides opportunities not available in low-income households, like the ability to take vacations or reduce daily stress.

Mental illness is also more prevalent among those with marginal social and sexual identities

Question 66

How does mental illness affect daily lives?

Answer 66

Mental illness can have profound implications for people’s lives. It has been shown to lead to more job insecurity, substance abuse, hospitalization, and criminal justice system involvement

Almost one-third of those with mood disorders report that their mental illness has negatively affected their lives by limiting their hobbies, social activities, social interactions, and employment

Although suicide rates have been declining since 1983, about 4,000 Canadians die each year from suicide
→ Of those, 90% were living with a mental health problem or illness
→ Suicide is the second leading cause of death among young Canadians aged 10-29, and suicide rates overall are highest among those aged 45-59; this age group encompasses nearly half of all suicides in Canada and demonstrates how pervasive mental illness can be across the population

People with mental illness are also twice as likely to have substance abuse problems

Question 67

Seeking help for mental illness

Answer 67

Almost half of individuals affected by mental illness have not seen a health care practitioner. Stigma felt among those with mental illness is one of the most significant barriers to accessing mental health supports

And even when people seek support, they may encounter long waitlists, inadequate care, or lack of awareness about available services

Question 68

Morbidity

Answer 68

The state of being unhealthy from a disease, injury or disability.

Question 68

Mortality

Answer 68

The number and causes of death in a population

Question 69

Indigenous health practices

Answer 69

Traditional Indigenous health is characterized by holistic approaches involving interconnected spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical dimensions of well-being. Indigenous conceptualizations include health behaviors, community and relational factors like kinship, cultural relationships to the land, and structural factors like self-determination and political and economic independence → The Ojibwe phrase
“Mino-Bimaadiziwin”, which translates to “Healthy Way of Life”, captures this balance.

Healing involves the direct practical application of Indigenous knowledge systems, like herbal medicines, and specific ceremonies and rituals that promote spiritual, mental, physical, and psychological well-being.
→ These holistic concepts are not abstract representations; rather, they form real protective factors that have shown to be effective in Indigenous communities

Question 70

Structural functionalists on health and illness

Answer 70

Functionalists see illness as a form of deviance because illness represents a breakdown in the capacity to effectively perform functional roles and tasks, like worker, parent, or student
→ This inability to remain a productive member of society does not represent a disregard for social norms but instead represents an inability to conform to them. Illness, then, creates a new role—what Parsons called the sick role

The sick role overtakes the previous role and provides a new set of responsibilities:

1. The sick are exempt from normal social obligations.
2. The sick are not to be blamed for their illness.
3. The sick must take responsibility to get out of the sick state as quickly as possible.
4. The sick must seek help to get out of the sick state, including cooperating with caregivers and doctors

In order for this shrugging off of responsibility to appear legitimate, and to demonstrate that being sick is not their fault, the sick person must want to get well and must take steps to demonstrate that desire, like seeking medical assistance

The importance of the sick role is that it highlights how personal states like physical or mental illness, and efforts to abate or counteract illness, are connected to the equilibrium of the social system
It also highlights the importance of the patient-doctor relationship as a fundamental social relationship—doctors enable the sick role, but also assist people in their return to other roles and obligations.

Question 71

Conflict perspective on healthcare

Answer 71

Conflict theory concentrates on the ways in which social and economic inequality influence health outcomes

The working-class slums were breeding grounds for disease, and harsh working conditions led to crippling injuries and poor physical and mental health.

Under capitalist systems, personal illness becomes a “commodity” to be exchanged among health professionals and the medical industry for profit
→ Focusing on treating diseases in individuals ignores the social conditions that result in illness and poor health, and emphasizes individual treatment rather than efforts to generate social and economic change that will improve overall population health

Medical professionals assist with the creation and pursuit of corporate profits and perpetuate a health care system that favors the middle or upper class
→ States have long benefited from tax revenue from the sale of cigarettes and alcohol, and have pitted those financial incentives against the health of citizens.

Question 72

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on healthcare

Answer 72

Symbolic interactionists examine how illness is experienced by people and the social and cultural construction of illness and disease. Interactionists recognize that illness is often embedded in local systems of meaning that are influenced by cultural and social forces
→ How we experience or understand illness is not necessarily inherent in the biological effects of the disease itself. Instead, it’s important to understand how people interpret and make sense of biological phenomena like disease or poor health

The case of the girl taken away from her family because they had a different cultural understanding of epilepsy has since encouraged greater cultural competence and understanding by medical professionals, underscoring the ways in which illness can be understood across cultures from the point of view of patients.

Medicalization ex. With female reproductive processes or even gambling

Medicine provides an officially sanctioned diagnosis of illness, and therefore validation of illness. Having a clear diagnosis not only provides a psychological resource for the ill, who can now name and understand their illness, but it provides broader public validation and access to important resources.

Question 73

Medicalization

Answer 73

The process of recasting certain human and social behaviors as “sicknesses” that require medical intervention

• There has been a long-studied historical process of recasting seemingly deviant behaviour or social ills, like promiscuity, alcohol consumption, gambling, and even menopause, as medical problems requiring the intervention of medical professionals

Question 74

Feminist Perspective on healthcare

Answer 74

Feminists understand that women’s health is a political, social, and economic matter as much as a biological one

The Women’s Health Movement demanded improved health care for women and an end to sexism and paternalism from doctors and health care professionals, such as when doctors dismiss women’s health concerns or minimize their experiences with their own bodies in the face of their scientific knowledge. → further demanded more agency over their own bodies
→ WHM pushed for birth control to be legalized such as the pill and condoms, and abortion care
→ Many women wished to give birth without medical intervention, safely, and in ways of their choosing. → removes some restrictions around childbirth and allows women to set up the conditions in which they give birth
→ The WHM also advocated for the importance of breastfeeding, arguing through the courts that it constitutes a civil right and that women should be allowed to take time during the day to feed or express milk.

Second, the WHM led to the development of self-help groups and organizations across North America.
→ Feminists objected to the medicalization of healthy female processes like sexuality and sexual arousal, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, menstruation, and menopause. Before feminist intervention, rather than emotional distress being regarded by medical professionals as a legitimate consequence of women’s social isolation and low social value, it was medicalized—treated as abnormal and something to be drugged.

Lastly, the WHM pushed for gender equality in research. There are gender differences in diseases and responses to drugs that were simply being ignored by researchers
→ Ex. how a brain condition found in boxers was found in dv survivors due to repeated blunt force trauma to the head, but dv women were not included in the condition’s description until much much later than male boxers

Question 75

Postmodern Perspectives on healthcare

Answer 75

Postmodern analysis of this example would focus on the ways in which discourse, or how we think about and communicate about people, things, or society, and the interrelationship between the three, shapes how we think about something like gemstone healing

Superiority has been built as much on objective evidence and sound medical research as upon the power of certain groups to ensure that their “truth” or discourse supplants all other discourses about healing

“Truths” about medical science and the biomedical model reflect the knowledge claims and vested interests of certain groups, as well as prevailing social and cultural systems and ideologies
→ Discourses like science are not value-neutral—individuals and groups use scientific knowledge and authority as a strategy through which to pursue their own agendas

Those espousing a biomedical model would say that the benefits are merely a placebo.
→ But placebos also have effects on the efficacy of biomedical treatments and are sometimes more effective than treatment. What a patient expects, their attitudes and the quality of patient-physician communication can influence the benefits of medical intervention in ways that scientists and physicians cannot explain

Question 76

Public health

Answer 76

Public health is the organized effort to ensure population health and prevent injury, illness, and death

–> most important to mitigate illness

Question 77

Epidemiological transition

Answer 77

This occurs when society transitions from being characterized by infectious and parasitic diseases and high mortality to one characterized by high life expectancy and degenerative and chronic diseases like cancer that afflict only those who live long enough to develop them.

Question 78

Health care systems

Answer 78

Are the people and organizations that deliver health services and medical care to people.

Canada’s health care system is publicly funded, meaning that Canadians pay taxes to have reasonable access to hospital and physician services without paying out-of-pocket. Often called Medicare, our system is not a national or federal plan, but instead consists of 13 provincial and territorial health care insurance plans that are taxpayer-funded, where provincial or territorial governments pay set fees for medical services

Question 79

How much does Canadian healthcare cover?

Answer 79

In 2019, total health care spending in Canada reached $264 billion, or nearly $7,100 per person, which amounts to about 12% of our GDP

The majority of the $264 billion is spent on hospitals (26%), paying physicians (15%), and subsidizing prescription drugs (13%).

Canada spends comparatively more per capita than countries like New Zealand, Finland, the United Kingdom, France, and Japan, but less than per capita compared to Denmark, Germany, Norway, and the United States

In Canada, about 70% of health costs are paid by your provincial or territorial government through taxes, and about 30% of the costs are paid by private insurance or out-of-pocket

Question 80

Canadian healthcare compared to other OECD countries

Answer 80

Many report high satisfaction with their care, which matches international data showing Canada’s high quality of care compared to other OECD countries (CIHI 2017). However, Canada is about the middle of the road when it comes to measures like managing diabetes patients and breast cancer survival,mortality amenable to health care, (this outcome measures the number of deaths from diseases that are preventable with timely health care and is a sign of a strong health care system).

In 2000, Canada had 109 deaths per 100,000 population but that has since dropped to 73 in 2017, → respectable, but falls beneath other OECD countries

Canada falls beneath other OECD countries in: number of practicing phsyicians, MRI exams per capita, breast cancer screenings, lung cancer treatment for women (even though canada excels at other screenings), and elderly community care

Canada also has some of the longest wait times to see a family doctor, to be seen in an emergency room, and to see a specialist, where 50% of Canadians must wait four or more weeks.

Question 81

Flaws in the healthcare system

Answer 81

Access to care is not evenly distributed across the country. It can be limited by systemic factors, and also by social class and race
→ For example, most surgeons work as independent practitioners, and there is little coordination of surgical referrals in Canada. Having centralized models (in other countries) where all surgical referrals are processed through a single point of entry so that patients can be booked for the first available slot has proven effective in reducing access barriers and wait times.

Moreover, doctors are independent fee-for-service contractors: they are self-employed and bill the government for the service they provide to the public. They otherwise have no real accountability or responsibility to the health care system
→ This makes it especially challenging to enact large-scale reforms that might improve access to care.
→ The professional associations to which doctors belong, like the Canadian Medical Associations, often maintain the status quo to protect their own interests and the interests of their members

Question 82

How SES affects access to healthcare

Answer 82

Lower SES individuals must also rely more on emergency hospitalizations rather than having the ability to book day surgeries with outpatient care. Moreover, health care reforms and cuts tend to hurt those in the lower class most since it often means less access to hospital care

In addition, up to a third of Canadians do not have access to private insurance for prescription medication, outpatient services like mental health or social workers, or dental care
→ Nearly one in four households report someone in the household who is not taking medication because they cannot afford to pay for it.

The most vulnerable are the working poor—they are employed, and therefore cannot benefit from provincial programs that provide medical support for the unemployed, and yet they often lack private insurance and cannot afford health care not covered by Medicare

Question 83

Indigenous experience with healthcare

Answer 83

Research shows that Indigenous people have worse access to quality health care compared to other Canadians, have higher rates of hospitalization for conditions that should be treatable by primary care physicians like a family doctor, have less access to specialists, have less access to health services overall, and experience racism when they do have access to services

Rural, remote, and northern Indigenous communities have problems attracting and retaining health professionals, leaving many communities with shortages of medical personnel. Professionals are often flown in for short time periods to see patients as travel costs make it difficult for residents to seek treatment outside of their community. The long wait lists for care on reserves can also delay the diagnosis of disease, reduce the effectiveness of treatment, and increase mortality because of the late detection of disease

As discussed elsewhere in this chapter, Indigenous Peoples were forcibly relocated to sanitoria and “Indian” hospitals where they experienced poor treatment, discrimination, permanent harm, and even death. Today, continued negative interactions with healthcare providers create mistrust and apprehension in seeking care
→ Much research has shown that interactions with healthcare providers have been shaped by unsafe care, lack of respect or compassionate treatment, racism, and discrimination

Cultural safety emphasizes how health care institutions can critically reflect on colonial precedents in care that contribute to power imbalances
→ Patient-centred care that treats people respectfully and as active agents in their own health is needed rather than solely providing more funding

Question 84

Culture in healthcare

Answer 84

Ideas about causes and mechanism of illness heavily influenced by culture

Cultural background predictor of cancer screening

Perceptions about chemicals/unnatural origins of prescriptions

Religious ideas and treatment
–> Some more conservative practices limit more invasive testing

Question 85

Mass media

Answer 85

Communication technologies that allow for the distribution of information to a mass audience

Question 86

The evolution of media/mass media

Answer 86

Early forms of media included such things as paper, the telegraph, hieroglyphs, and village town criers. Communication usually from person to person.

→ The first mass media was the printing press in the mid-15th century, which enabled the mass production and distribution of books and newspapers. Just as important were moving pictures, radio signals, television broadcasting, and the Internet.

There are generational differences in the role of mass media in people’s personal and professional lives and sentiments on mass media
→ Young canadians reported more drawbacks and benefits from technology compared to all canadians
→ Relationship to media depends on exposure, which can be defined by age

Question 87

Digital divide

Answer 87

The gap in access to computers and related technology like the Internet that exists between wealthier, well-educated, and urban Canadians and Canadians with lower incomes, lower education levels, and a rural location. → The digital divide mirrors existing inequalities in society

Beyond access, income and education also impact the extent to which people participate in activities online
→ lower SES Canadians are unable to take advantage of the Internet as a resource for finding a job, accessing information, online government services, education, and connecting with friends and family

Internet connection problems can also prevent Canadians from running home-based businesses and working from home.
→ Very few Canadians mention entertainment as an important benefit to technology, listing other information- and work-based components as most crucial

Question 88

What community is most affected by the digital divide?

Answer 88

The Canadian communities most impacted by lack of connectivity tend to be remote and northern Indigenous communities, including Indigenous people living on reserves.
→ The infrastructure-building challenges associated with these locations make internet service less profitable for major telecommunications companies in Canada, so many communities are taking on the responsibility themselves.

The digital divide also refers to the gap in access to computer and related technology that exists between wealthy and poor nations
→ A report on the digital divide by the United Nations documents that more than half of the world’s population has limited or no access to the Internet. Reflects global inequalities
→ This has implications for a nation’s economic wealth and productivity; they note that Internet access is related to the development of artificial intelligence, 3D printing, robotics, cloud computing, and a host of other tech-based innovations.

Question 89

Internet usage among canadians

Answer 89

Ninety-seven percent of Canadians use the internet at least once per month, while nearly 100% of Canadians aged 15-34 use the internet daily

The fastest growth in internet use is among those aged 65 and older, sitting at about 70% in 2016.
→ Rates are highest for seniors with a university education and with higher household income (more than double what it was a decade prior)
→ Despite that growth, internet usage among seniors is still lower than the rest of the Canadian population, making it a potential source of social exclusion.

Canadians access the internet at home (80.8%), though almost half (48.6%) access the internet through a handheld wireless device (namely a mobile phone)
→ Over the years, the library has declined in popularity as a place to access the internet

Streaming & downloads of music and video games + online gaming subscriptions and downloads are all higher among 18-24 yo than all Canadians.

Question 89

Why did Canadian universities start using the internet?

Answer 89

Canadian universities were the first to be linked together via a network and to adopt the technology created by the United States Defense Department in the 1970s (their goal was to develop a communications system that could withstand a nuclear attack).

Question 90

Social media

Answer 90

Over 90% of Canadians aged 15–34 are regular users of social media. This declines as age increases such that, by age 65 and older, social media is used regularly by about 50% of that population

Frequency of use introduces risks, such as cyberbullying and cyberstalking: 15% of Canadians aged 15–34 report being victimized in the past five years

20-24 year olds are the population with the highest amount of daily social media users

Question 91

Global village

Answer 91

A global community interconnected by mass media

McLuhan noticed how people are inherently interconnected, no matter where they are in the world, by virtue of all watching the same television news and entertainment programming. While McLuhan was certainly correct to observe that people can be unified by collectively viewing the same program or event on TV, television is one-way communication; we passively receive programming in a unidirectional fashion.

Applicable to today’s context of social media where there is two-way communication

Question 92

The functions of mass media -structural functionalist

Answer 92

1. Surveillance refers to the gathering and disseminating of information to all members of society.
   → Think of the steady stream of information that is available to us about international, national, and local news, weather updates, and community event listings, as well as the 24/7 news channels featuring ongoing newscasts and a ticker of information running along the bottom of the screen.
   → Can include bringing deviant behavior into public view to reinforce norms
   Wright argues that there are also dysfunctions to surveillance → The constant stream of information can foster fear and make us retreat to our private lives.
2. Correlation: refers to how information is packaged. The mass media makes decisions about what content to cover, namely what’s most popular or important to the people in a particular context.
   → Component to the information it is delivering, along with providing the appropriate contextual information needed for the information to make sense to the audience
   → Depending on how the information is presented, media consumers might be discouraged away from criticism of content and a lack of exposure to controversial topics
3. Social heritage/socialization
   → Mass media are a powerful tool for conveying this information to an audience and therefore, according to structural functionalists, are important players in increasing social cohesion and creating consensus within a culture or society.
   → In nations with government control over mass media, the media are explicitly used to produce desirable behavior from its citizens → a potential dysfunction.
4. The fourth element is entertainment. Entertainment provides a respite from daily life, giving viewers time to simply be entertained and diverted, which is a positive function of this element of the mass media.
   → That entertainment can be used to extend control of political and economic elites depending on the content of the entertainment, rendering entertainment more complicated than simple entertainment
5. Mobilization: This is a recognition of the mass media’s status as a venue where people and groups mount campaigns for societal objectives, mobilizing others around a social issue
   → A recent addition to the functions of social media

Question 93

Hegemony

Answer 93

The ideological, non-violent control exerted by a dominant group over a subgroup that perpetuates their power through reinforcement of the values of the dominant group.

Question 94

Conflict theory on mass media

Answer 94

Control of mass media → Hegemony reinforces the values of the dominant group such that they become the assumed, taken-for-granted values for all, even those who are subordinate and may not benefit from those values
→ Among the tenets of his theory of hegemony was that the mass media is a tool for economic and political elites to stay dominant; through the mass media, the power and status of the dominant become normalized and seem “right.” ex. How media representations of crime shape perceptions of crime

The mass media contribute to the false consciousness of the subordinate classes. They become passive subjects through the uncritical consumption of the mass media created by the dominant classes

The positive and negative labels that are attached to stories via the language used to describe them are important components of what Gramsci captures with his theory of hegemony. Ex. The American Dream and hardworking student

Essentially this is about how you are a commodity. Any time you watch a video on YouTube or scroll through Instagram, you are a target for advertisers, your information gets sold to advertisers

Question 95

Media ownership - ct

Answer 95

In Canada, media ownership has transformed such that most mass media are owned by a small number of companies
→ Tends to lead to closures of local community papers, which is a concern for critics of media consolidation; at the heart of the issue is whether fewer distributors of information result in more uniform content and fewer opportunities for multiple viewpoints

Canada’s Competition Bureau, which is meant to prevent industry monopolies and ensure fair competition for market share, has been largely hands-off when it comes to media consolidation in Canada

Question 96

The role of advertising in mass media

Answer 96

Media companies not only decide whether and how to cover the news, but also the kinds of ads to which we are exposed

When advertising revenues are necessary for offsetting broadcasting expenses, advertisers become important players in shaping the media.
→ Declining advertising revenue is among the reasons why radio broadcasting has experienced a downturn. Television broadcasting likewise relies on the billions of dollars in advertising revenue it receives each year and is similarly experiencing a decline

A second concern is that information is kept out of a broadcast because it reflects negatively upon an advertiser.
- The negative response can come from anywhere, like from parents’ groups with concerns about violence on television to public relations companies representing an entire industry. But when flak comes from companies that typically advertise with the broadcaster, there are potentially major implications for revenue

Question 97

Flak

Answer 97

Negative response to a broadcast of information via mass media

Question 98

Structure and agency

Answer 98

Agency argument - We have our own free will, there is an effect of the media if we allow it to be so
- Symbolic interactionism, feminist (later), postmodernism

Structure argument - There are powerful forces that constrains our decision making, with media there is an assumption that we are always susceptible to mass media
- Structural functionalism, conflict, feminist (early)

Question 99

“Audience effects” - ex with literature, audience interpretations which affects how it impacts the audience

Answer 99

Short term intended - producers want the effects to be immediate, ex a kid seeing a commercial for a cereal and nagging their parents to buy it. Companies that market to children hire child psychologists to help them develop commercials that allow them to be compelling to kids, based on a metric of how much they nag their parents.

Long term intended - wants there to be an effect, but it happens slower. Ex. public service announcements, implants the idea in your brain to take effect over time.

Long term unintended - effect over time but not the intent of the producers. Ex. desensitization to violence and sexual imagery, ex. How regulations changed for showing alcohol, unless they were characterized as an alcoholic, now is much more lax.

Short term unintended - not intended by producer, quick impact. Ex. doom, first first-person shooter game, around the time it came out, there was a string of school shootings. Politicians argued that it made kids more violent, arguing in the short term it makes kids more likely to be violent (which is actually wrong).

Question 100

Affective polarization

Answer 100

people are increasingly polarized, seeing people on the other end void of morality and less human, can be seen especially in politics

Question 101

Body image

Answer 101

Especially in social media, algorithm can show specific body types if that is something you interact with, whether or not it affects your self image

Content creators promote brands, intentionally curating their image and not presenting a truly representational image

Trends that market towards insecurities especially in the beauty and fashion industries

Question 102

Cultivation theory - postmodernism

Answer 102

The crux of cultivation theory is that the real world is eventually replaced by a “televised world” the more we consume television.

For example, if someone consumes a great deal of violent, crime-ridden programming, cultivation theory predicts that the audience will believe that they are surrounded by the risk of violence and crime, regardless of actual incidences in their community.

Question 103

Audience reception theory - symbolic interactionism

Answer 103

Audience reception theory improves upon this by making the audience visible, shifting focus from producers and content to audiences and their reception of mass media. In essence, this type of analysis looks at media messages as open to interpretation, with that interpretation and meaning assigned by the audience based on their social context
→ The underlying assumptions are that audiences are never passive recipients and content may not be received as packaged by media creators.

Question 104

Early feminist theory on porn

Answer 104

An underlying premise to understand from the start is that feminist theory assumes that the mass media have political significance and therefore can be consequential to the lives of women, men, and in the broader context more generally

At its inception, feminist literature on pornography emphasized the ways in which pornography objectified women, often positioning their pleasure and sexuality as subordinate to that of men

First, the depiction of women in pornography has a negative effect on women; and second, the sexual relations depicted in pornography put women at risk via their relationship with men
→ Critics focused on how the women in pornography were always very slim, white, and very young
→ These critics advocate for the complete ban on the creation and circulation of pornography. A somewhat “softer” version of the critique of pornography is that viewers of porn become desensitized to its content, which has become more hardcore over time, negatively affecting male sexuality and putting women’s safety at risk. They also say that pornography contributes to rape culture.

Question 105

Contemporary feminism on pornography

Answer 105

Today’s feminist approach to pornography sees dual importance of exploring pleasure through pornography and identifying sexism in all mass media, including pornography

Feminist pornography and “women’s point-of-view” content, for example, positions women as empowered sexual agents who initiate and enjoy sex on their own terms
→ Often, this is accompanied by a number of technical differences in the ways that films are shot, and in the selection, pairing, and posturing of models

Question 106

The effects of porn

Answer 106

There is mixed research to whether porn depicts negative power imbalances
→ there are more instances of verbal and physical aggression towards women
→ others found that women have equal positions in power, exemplified by men and women equally initiating sex in workplaces in porn

Research among heterosexual male consumers of porn finds that pornography shapes their sexual preferences and may introduce concerns about sexual performance and body image.
→ A study of young male heterosexual pornography consumers indicated that they could set aside their fantasies created by watching porn, they do not want their partner to look like a porn star, and they support gender equality

Some women raise concerns about it seeming potentially exploitative toward women, while others report that watching pornography is useful for experiencing pleasure both with and without their partners
→ Some women report that pornography serves as a springboard for thinking about their own sexual desires, changing the dynamics of their sexual relationships, and reducing stress

Question 107

Echo chamber

Answer 107

when people are exposed only to information, ideas, and beliefs that conform to their existing beliefs

Question 108

Representation in mass media

Answer 108

Compared to prior years, women’s representation as protagonists, major characters, and in speaking roles has increased. However, it is also the case that men outnumber women in all categories
→ Women are a protagonist in 29% of the top-grossing films of 2020, while men are the protagonist in around half (49%) of films (the balance of 22% is an ensemble cast). The gender gap is larger for major characters played by women and men
→ In films helmed exclusively by a male director, women are the protagonist 21% of the time. When the director is female, that figure rises to 57%

The largest gap is related to speaking roles; audiences were almost twice as likely to see male speaking characters as female speaking characters in 2020 top-grossing films
→ Female characters tend to be younger than their male counterparts, more likely to be depicted in personal roles, and having personal goals rather than work goals

Independent films have made better strides in this respect; we see historic highs when it comes to women directors, writers, executive producers, and editors working on independent films (compared to major studio films), but men still outnumber women

Female characters are most likely to be white, as indicated by the topmost line. In 2020, for example, 71% of all female characters were white, representing a 3% increase from 2019
→ Research from other domains of mass media suggests that depictions of men and women from racialized groups often follow stereotypes
→ Asian characters are featured more often since Crazy Rich Asians

These types of stories provide the opportunity to observe how people and events are covered by the news media, primarily by examining the language used in the articles and broadcasts (a research method called critical discourse analysis).
→ The news has featured many stories that connect intimately to many Canadians who are not white, including immigration (such as the immigration of Syrian refugees beginning in 2015), Quebec’s banning of the niqab and other religious symbols among government employees, citizenship revocations for dual nationals, and Indigenous collective action.

Question 109

Media

Answer 109

Any formats or vehicles that carry, present or communicate information

Question 110

Secondary deviance

Answer 110

Secondary deviance: Deviance that form a basis for developing a negative self concept because of the public application of a negative label
→ but when labels are applied forcefully and publicly to an act of deviance, for example by arresting a young person for mischief and sending them to court, secondary deviance can occur