Chapter 1-3 soc100 Flashcards
Define sociology
The study of society and individual human behaviour.
What is the sociological imagination?
“the ability to see connections between an individual’s life and experiences and broader social and historical issues and forces”
- individual experiences exist in the context of society
What are social structures?
“Social structures are ordered sets of recurring patterns of behaviour and institutions that make up our society”
What are the levels of sociological study?
Micro: “recurring patterns of behaviour that exist at the level of interaction, whether that be face-to-face or online.”
Meso: “Research at the meso level might focus on the ways that our behaviour is influenced by something like organizational culture.” ex. a school or a church
Macro: The study of structures that impact large scale populations, ex. macrostructures, global structures and institutions
Define institutions
An enduring and stable set of expectations and behaviors based on a shared belief system, reinforced by social structures. Ex. marriage, kinship, law, religion, family
What is agency
The capacity to act independently of social forces.
- we all have agency
What is a social construction?
“Social construction refers to the view that elements of our social world are products of particular cultural and historical contexts.” ex. race, gender, sexuality
What are the five major theories in sociology?
- Structural functionalism
- Conflict theory
- Symbolic interactionalism
- Feminist theory
- Postmodernism
What is a theory?
“A set of testable ideas designed to explain something observed about our social world.”
Explain the canon
The most authentic or genuine of someone’s work. In sociology, the canon consists of works from Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, etc. but who is and isn’t included in the canon is a subject of debate.
- it tends to exclude theorists of marginalized communities
What is positivism?
“an approach to studying our social world that highlights the principles of the natural sciences.”
- emphasis placed on provable scientific findings, rejection of theism and metaphysics
What were the factors that influenced the emergence of sociology as a discipline?
- Following the Enlightenment in 17th century Europe, more emphasis was placed on the logic of science over religion (positivism)
- The industrial revolution changed social work dynamics drastically - they went to families working together to usually only the dad of the household at work. Suddenly, family and work were separate.
–> The type of work shifted as well, from farming to factory production
–> During this time, sociologists wrote from different perspectives: Karl Marx talking about industrial capitalism and feminist theorists talking about the limitations for women
Characteristics of structural functionalism
- Macrosociology
- Examines how social structure maintain stability and order within society
- Uses an organism as a metaphor –> how every part works together to maintain the whole
Define social solidarity
SF
“The degree of a group’s cohesion based on shared values, beliefs, and interactions”
–> The basis of social solidarity changed over time. Originally it was a small agricultural community who held the same ideals. Following the industrial revolution, that morphed into solidarity on the basis of interdependence, with a weak sense of community cohesion.
Types of functions of structural functionalism
Manifest: The ‘main goal’ of the structure, effects are intended, visible
Latent: The ‘side effects’ of the structure, effects are not intended, invisible
Dysfunctions: Elements of a structure that creates instability in a social system
What is anomie?
SF
“Anomie is a negative individual state produced by an absence of governing norms over a person’s behaviour, or when those norms are poorly defined”
How do structural functionalists view social change?
Structural functionalists recognize how one institution may be interlinked with others, therefore bringing change in one must bring change in all those related to maintain equilibrium
–> It doesn’t however recognize the need for social change and would prefer everything stay the same to maintain the status quo
Is structural functionalism relavant today?
Not commonly used anymore as structural functionalism fails to address the inequalities in pre existing social structures and sees social change only as maintaining the status quo
What are the characteristics of conflict theory?
- Macrosociology
- Examines the relationship between economic inequality and capitalism
- “conflict theory explores the attainment of different material and non-material resources through the use of power and how those varying resources can create conflict.”
- who gets what and why?
- how do people earn their living?
What are the two populations under CT and what is their role in industrial capitalism + conflict?
Bourgoise: Own the means of production → Profit maximization, control proletariat’s wages
Proletariat: Produce the products → Working to live, only have labor power to trade in for money
Market capitalism vs industrial capitalism
CT
Industrial capitalism: Conceptualized following the industrial revolution, the basis from which conflict theory was made.
Market capitalism: Current day capitalism, factory owners no longer own the same power that they once did, consumerism
What is false consciousness
CT
According to Marx, it is a set of beliefs that go against the individuals self-interest of one’s social class. Ex. the hustle mindset that you just have to work harder to become upper class.
What is class consciousness?
CT
The awareness of one’s social class and what that means for their social position.
What are the characteristics of symbolic interactionalism
- Studies the meaning we assign to our surroundings and how that influences our experiences
- A microsociology → The study of interactions between a small group of people rather than larger social structures (like the two theories before it)
- Goes in the other direction that conflict theory did. Weber (a symbolic interactionalist) criticized Marx’s work, saying that it was too limited in describing everyone as either bourgeoise or proletariat, as there are many groups of people who don’t fit in either description. It also doesn’t account people who work without being compensated but still contribute to the economy, and those who don’t work in factories.
The self vs Identity
SI
self: individual thoughts and opinions of who you are
(social) identity: group characteristics that are identifiable by others (ex. race, gender, etc)
Verstehen
SI
means “human understanding”, comprehension of other’s perspectives
Three principles of meaning making through others
SI
1. People act according to the meaning they assign things
2. meanings are based on past experiences, can vary person to person
3. Meanings are changed through interactions with other people - understanding alternate meanings
Explain the dramaturgical analysis
- The setting/context of the social interaction is the “stage”
- “Front stage” is what you present to others, not fully representative of who you are as a person
–> impression management - controlling your actions/appearance so your audience perceives you in a specific way - “back stage” is the preparation for the front stage, not seen by the audience
*symbols - signify something to people with a shared culture
What are the characteristics of feminist theory?
- Macrosociology and microsociology
- Examines the impact of gender based oppression on women
- Although there are many kinds of feminist theorists, it is all centered around gender based oppression
- Asks the question “what about women”
Define the patriarchy
a social structure: “the system of male domination over women”
- Patriarchy is a central force in women’s lives, their lives are defined by gender based inequalities
- Patriarchy is in both the private and public sphere
*Marriage bar → women’s husbands forbade them from working so they stay home and take care of the children
What are the three main parts of feminist theory?
- Lack of autonomy
- Inability to make financial decisions without their husband, or vote or work
- Lack of control over their own lives - Women’s work
- Household labor is unpaid and paid work is exploited - Women’s standpoint
- understanding the perspective of women
- intersectionality
Which theory emphasizes the importance of social reform?
Feminist theory –> to create social change rather than report the findings among sociologists
Characteristics of postmodernism
- made up of many theorists
- Anti theory, rejects and recenters the grand narratives (theories that came before it)
- Does not focus on social structures
- Movement away from the idea of progress, authority and science
- Argument that past events cannot be used to explain current conditions as society changes so rapidly
- there is no one way to do things/no single truth about any given subject
Define poststructuralism
PM
There is no one depiction of the “truth”, but with tools like language, one can influence others to see certain aspects of life in a certain way
- Focuses on language, ex. When you name something as normal, everything else is abnormal.
- discourse emerges from poststructuralism
Why is systematic collection of data important?
- Is important as it makes us avoid relying on anecdotes and biases
- We believe we understand the world, but it’s important to recognize you understand it only from your own perspective
- Helps sociologists avoid confirmation bias: seeking out information that confirms preexisting opinions
Factors of postmoderism
- the instability of society
- there isn’t one overarching power that controls our lives
- creates more tolerance and diversity - The social world as a simulation
- Simulacura: images or representations that replace reality
- Hyperreality: when simulacura is so pervasive/immersive that it replaces reality - Consumption and consumerism
- traditional values being replaced by material objects (can be linked to conflict theory)
- advertisements are a form of social control by influencing you what to buy
- What we buy signifies something about our identity/what we want to portray to the public (can be linked to symbolic interactionalism
Define discourse
PM
Writing about a subject. It is rarely objective and it is produced by people in positions of power
- Analyzing discourse can be indicative of who holds power and knowledge
- Their discourse decides what is considered “normal”
- Foucault wrote about the practices used to directly and indirectly control people’s actions → people self regulate their behaviour
Why do research?
- systematic collection of data
- Test theories
- Develop new concepts
- Study change over time
- Public sociology
- To have an impact
Data definition + types of data
Data: Information gathered from which conclusions can be made
Datasets: a collection of data
Primary data: Collected by the researcher
Secondary data: Collected by someone else for researchers to use
What is quantitative data?
“A methodical approach that relies on numerical data. This approach seeks to determine causal relationships and correlations between variables”
- Figures/tables/graphs (usually)
- Seeks to determine relationships between variables → largescale trends/patterns
- Information like demographics are assigned a number ex. 1 for male 2 for female
- Surveys and questionnaires
–> Both are primary data and considered quantitative methods
What is qualitative data?
“A methodical approach where researchers seek to develop in depth understandings of social phenomena and interpret meanings of social actors through the collection of non-numerical data”
- Develop in-depth understandings of social phenomena and interpret meanings of social action
- Depth of understanding is more important than establishing a pattern
- Interviews and focus groups
–>Qualitative methods
–> In interviews, the researcher asks predetermined questions to collect certain data
–> In focus groups, the researcher acts as a moderator, keeping the conversation relevant to the data they’re collecting
Field notes: systematic notes capturing what is discovered in field research
Similarities of quantitative vs qualitative
- both use the research cycle
mixed methods: using both qualitative and quantitative to cross reference data that was collected
Population vs sample
Population: “The entire set of items, events, units, or people about which the researcher has a research interest.”
Sample: “A subset of a population of interest that is selected to be part of research.”
Sampling - move from a population to a sample of said population
- Probability and non-probability sampling techniques
Components of experimental testing
Control group: A group that does not receive experimental treatment
experimental group: they are exposed to experimental treatment
Random assignment: assigning participants to either group through chance
Treatment variables: independant variables
Response variables: Dependant variables
Types of sampling techniques
Probability/random sampling:
- mathematically random
- used mostly in quantitative data collection
- is representative of the entire population
- more generalizable for the entire population
- anyone in the sample frame (characteristics that define the population) can be selected
Non-probability sampling
- a purpose tied to your research topic that guides the selection of a sample, not generalizable.
- used mostly in qualitative data collection
Snowballing sampling (part of non-probability)
- starts with one person from a specific demographic, then another (ex. vunerable demographics like prisoners)
Types of variables and relationships
Independant: (X) Influences the dependant variable
Dependant: (Y) gets influenced by the dependant variable
Correlation: a relationship is established between variables that works both ways, they influence eachother and therefore don’t have an independant or dependant variable
Causation: Independant and dependant variables - one influences another
What is the social desirability bias?
Saying or demonstrating behavior that is socially acceptable to be more liked by the public, even when what was said/done is not necessarily true.
What is Research risk?
If the participants will be harmed to how the data collected in the research is stored. A researcher has to demonstrate the benefits of the data collection outweigh the risks.
- The use of deception is considered a large risk as the participants don’t have informed consent (voluntary participation based on full knowledge of the risks and benefits of the research) of the research that is being conducted
The importance of research ethics
Research ethics: A set of guidelines that must be followed to protect research participants
- Balances pursuit of scientific knowledge with respect for the participants
- Researcher and participant are on the same level, equals
What do ethical review boards search for?
research risk, group vulnerability, and the privacy of research participants.
What is Group vulnerability
If the participants are a vulnerable population (ex. Children, Poor health, incarcerated individuals, illegal immigrants, etc)
- If there is a power imbalance between the researcher and the participant
How can researchers ensure the privacy of research participants
- Can be safeguarded through anonymity and confidentiality
Anonymity: No identifying characteristics (ex. Name, number, etc) that can be linked back to them based on their responses to the method of research. Personal information is not known by the researcher
Confidentiality: Personal information is known by the researcher but cannot be traced back to from the data collected.
- Methods like assigning pseudonyms can be used to enforce confidentiality
Public sociology
- The application of sociological findings to enforce social change
- Research can contribute to the formation/change of policy and social change
–>“‘Participatory Action Research’ (PAR) involves both sociologists and members of the community as a research team.” - To conduct research on a topic that impacts that community
–>This makes the research more meaningful, relevant, and responsive to the needs of the members of the community
