Slides Week 7 Flashcards
1
Q
Social Development in Adults
A
- Normative Crisis Models
- Timing of Events Models
2
Q
Development Through Work
A
- Entering the Workforce
- Career Exploration
- Evaluation of theories or Career Exploration
- Changes in Career Satisfaction
- Retirement from Workforce
3
Q
Love and Work
A
- Research that have attemptsto account for the changes in social development
- Occur from young adulthood to older adulthood
- TWO models have been adopted:
- Normative crisis model.
- Timing of events model.
- These themes are not surprising.
- Research on life meaning and purpose shows that relationships and career are what give meaning to life for adults
- This is across sexes and age groups in adulthood,
- Baum & Stewart, 1990
4
Q
Normative Crisis Models
A
- Erikson (1953, 1968).
- Levinson (1980).
- Have been highly influential in developmental psychology.
- Argues that one moves through fixed stages, each tied to age
- Specific crises leads to growth (through resolution)
- Critics: outdated as these models are based on traditional models of family & work
5
Q
Ground Plan, Crises & Resolution
A
- There is an inbuilt ground plan to human development (i.e., definite age related sequences)
- This ground plan establishes a series of crises appropriate to particular phases of human life that need to be resolved.
- If crises are resolved, development proceeds to the next stage.
- If crises are not resolved, development may stagnate, although later revision of crises in response to life events is always possible.
- Consequences: life satisfaction and psychological well-being
6
Q
Seasons of A Man’s Life
A
- Levinson (1980):
- Theory has had huge impact upon the ways in which adult life is understood.
- Based on longitudinal study of 40 middle-aged men, aged 35 years to 45 years beginning in 1969.
- Did a subsequent study on women (Levinson, 1996) and found the stages, transitions, and crises invariant for women
- Included no statistical analyses, however quality and quantity of data were rich and detailed
7
Q
Eras and Transitions
A
- Levinson surmised a sequence of alternating age-linked eras and transitional periods
- Each era consists of developmental tasks to be negotiated.
- Considered to be stable, structure-building
- individual settles down to pursue key goals, values, life activities
- Build on experiences gained in the previous transitional period
- Each transitional period involves the termination of an existing life structure
- Individual must reappraise and modify certain aspects of life, so that a life structure can be initiated
- Follow eras, and can consist of a crisis period
8
Q
Levinson’s Developmental Periods (5)
A
- Childhood and adolescence: birth to 20
- Early adulthood: 17-45
- Middle adulthood: 40-65
- Late adulthood: 60+
- Late adult transition: 60-65
9
Q
Levinson - Early Adult Transition
A
- Age 17-22
- Entry life structure for early adulthood 33-40
- Age 30 Transition 28-33
- Entry site structure for early adulthood 22-28
10
Q
Mid-Life Transition: Age 40-45
A
- Culminating life structure for middle adulthood 55-60
- Age 50 transition 50-55
- Entry life structure for middle adulthood 45-50
11
Q
Early Adult Transition
A
- Age 17-22 years
- This era establishes a bridge between adolescence and adulthood
- Reffered to as emerging adulthood
- Arnett 2001
- New possibilities of the adulthood explored and tentative choices made.
-
Primary task:
- Change of life structure by altering relationships with parents and institutions, so that self-sufficiency is established.
- “Have I made the right decisions to enter adult life?”
12
Q
Entering the Adult World
A
- 23 years – 28 years.
- Young adults build and test a preliminary life structure
- Integrate work, love, and community to attain their ‘Dream’.
- Developmental tasks of this stage include:
- Choosing an occupation.
- Marriage.
- Establishing a home and family.
- Joining civic and social groups.
- Interestingly, Levinson found women had greater difficulty forming the dream compared to men
13
Q
Two Important Aspects of Entering the Adult World
A
The Dream
- A tentative map for the future to guide the building of subsequent life structures.
The Mentor
- An individual who is approximately 8 to 15 years older than the individual.
- Assists the individual in discovering ways of fulfilling the ‘Dream’ by providing support and inspiration.
- “What choices do I want to make?”
- Interestingly, Levinson found women had greater difficulty forming the dream compared to men
14
Q
Age 30 Transition
A
- A stable life structure has been created
- Forces individuals to question the choices and commitments that they have made
- Many individuals experience a developmental crisis during this period of their lives:
- Their present life structure is intolerable.
- “Is my career or lifestyle what I truly desire?”
- This crisis may lead to a radical change in life direction:
- Women who have been engaged in home duties often commence a career.
- Women who have been engaged in a career become concerned with issues of relationships and families.
15
Q
Settling Down and Becoming Your “Own Man”
A
- Culminating life structure for early adulthood
- 33 years – 40 years.
- TWO developmental tasks:
- Build a second life structure.
- Within this life structure, work towards the dream.
- “What niche would I like to establish in society and how would I like to progress in my career and family life? What kind of parent would I like to be?”
16
Q
Two Subtasks: Becoming Your Own Man
A
- Establish oneself in society
- Work towards advancement
SubStage - Becoming One’s Own Man 36-40 Years
- Ambition Peaks
- Individual attains greater authority
- Goal orientation increases
- Individual becomes more independent
17
Q
Mid-Life Transition
A
- 40 years – 45 years
- THREE tasks of this transition:
- Reappraisal.
- Integration.
- Creation of new life structure for the successful negotiation of mid-life.
- “What meaning and direction do I want in my life in order to meet my values? What additional talents would I like to cultivate? How can I work towards leaving a legacy?”
18
Q
Reappraisal
A
- Individual must reapprise lifestyle and goals
- Critical examination of existing life structure
- Realisation of own mortality
- Time is limited and must be used wisely
19
Q
Integration (4)
A
Four great polarities must be integrated within the self
- Young/Old
- Destructive/Constructive
- Masculine/Feminine
- Attachment/Separation
20
Q
Integration - Young/Old
A
- Individual is neither young or old but feels both
- Must relinquish youth
- Enable challenges of Middle Age to be embraced
21
Q
Integration - Destructive/Constructive
A
- Awareness of the transitory nature of things
- Aware of destructive actions in the past that have hurt others.
- Desire to be constructive through leaving a legacy.
- Link to Erikson’s notion of generativity
22
Q
Integration - Masculine/Feminine
A
- Awareness of, and integration of opposite gendered qualities in self
- i.e.,
- for men – qualities of nurturance, emotion;
- for women – qualities of assertiveness, power
23
Q
Integration - Attachment/Separation
A
- Integration of the need for connection with others
- Also need for solitude and separateness
24
Q
Creation of New Life Structure
A
80% of men noted that this period represents great struggle/crisis in areas of:
- Career.
- Marriage.
- The Dream.
- Mentoring.
25
Q
Entering Middle Adulthood
A
- 45 years – 50 years
- Creation of new life structure for middle age.
- “What new tasks would I like to take on? How can I be at peace with myself and others as I reflect on my life?”
- Coping with ageing/dying parents.
- Growing knowledge of own mortality.
- Making a deeper commitment to the younger generation.
- Coping with “Boomerang Kids”/ Sandwich Squeeze
- A recent survey by Ameritrade (2019) revealed 50% of young millennials planning to move back home after university
26
Q
Age 50 Transition
A
- 50 years - 55 years.
- Individuals who did not progress through their mid-life crisis at 40 years tend to experience the crisis in this stage of development.
- Assessing and improving career structure.
27
Q
Subsequent Stages
A
- Culmination of middle adulthood (55 years - 60 years).
- Achieving the goals formulated at age 50 (Stable period)
- Late adult transition (60 years - 65 years).
- Preparing for retirement (transitional)
- Late adulthood (65 years +).
- Retirement (stable)
28
Q
Development of Women
A
- Roberts & Newton (1987):
- Development of women at mid-life.
- 12 women, aged 44 years - 53 years.
- Applied Levinson’s framework to an analysis of these women’s lives.
- Women experience similar developmental changes to those experienced by men
- Mid-life transition less clear-cut dividing line for women:
- Life continues to be unstable after transition.
- Women had not reached point in their careers where could assess achievements and make clear change in direction
29
Q
Women Change in Middle Age
A
- When women made changes in career and family commitments, changes reflected:
- Age.
- Shifting roles.
- Desire for self-expression.
- Women who took risks and made real structural changes to lives showed at mid-life:
- Less depression.
- Higher self-esteem.
30
Q
Midlife Crisis
A
- Reality or Myth?
- Mixed results
- Evidence to suggest that for majority of people, transition is smooth and rewarding.
- Cheng, Powdthavee & Oswald (2014) Tracked happiness across three countries
- Studied England, Australia, Germany over multiple decades
- Evidence for a ‘U shaped’ pattern
31
Q
Why Mid Life Results Inconsistent
A
- Cross-sectional vs longitudinal design
- Several components of well being in midlife (Carol Ryff):
- Self-acceptance: holding a positive attitude toward oneself and one’s past life.
- Positive relations with people: having warm, satisfying, trusting relationships with others and concern and empathy for others.
- Autonomy: being self-determined, independent, and resistant to social pressures.
- Environmental mastery: having a sense of mastery and competence in managing the complexities of everyday life.
- Purpose in life: having goals, aims, and objectives that provide meaning in life.
- Personal growth: feeling a sense of continuing development and being open to new experiences
- Resolving these means less likely to have mid-life crisis
32
Q
Timing of Events Model
A
- Developing according to the social clock
- Tasks occur in response to particular life events and their timing
For example:
- Normative-crisis model: midlife transition occurs between ages 40 and 45
- Timing of events model: occurs when the person begins the process of questioning life desires, values, goals, and accomplishments (may/may not occur at ages 40-45).
33
Q
Timing of Events - Neugarten 1968
A
- Social development during adulthood is based upon the time in individual’s lives when important events occur.
- More variability between and among individuals is therefore taken into consideration when development is explained.
34
Q
Tenets of Timing of Events Model
A
- Social Clock says there is an appropriate time for events like marraige and children
- Affected by socioeconomic status
- Also Culture and Historical Period in which individuals are born
- Development proceeds when Normative Life Events occur when they are expected to
- When unexpected events occur OR when they occur at a time earlier or later than expected development is affected
35
Q
Timing of Events - Helson
A
- Each of us has a SOCIAL CLOCK
- Psychological timepiece that records the major milestones in people’s lives
- Allows us to measure and compare our progress against our peers
- Promotions, divorce, job changes, etc
- Ravenna Helson: timing of particular events in an adult’s life, rather than age determine the course of personality development.
- A woman having her first baby at 21 would experience the same psychological forces as a woman having her first baby at 39.
36
Q
Developing Through Work
A
- Career Development
- Social Development
37
Q
Four Important Life Transitions - Adolescence to Mature Adulthood
A
Four important life transitions that mark shift from adolescence and emerging adulthood into fully mature adulthood.
- Falling in love.
- Marriage.
- Children.
- Entering workforce.
38
Q
Entering the Workforce
A
- Proves to others that the individual has attained full maturity.
- Severs lingering ties of:
- Economic Dependence
- Emotional Dependence to parents.
- Myers (2000): Means to:
- Express skills and talents (young adults in 1960s, 1970s, 1980s).
- Achieve affluence (young adults in 1990s, 2000s).
39
Q
Career Exploration
A
Before choosing a particular career direction, most young adults explore career options through:
- Part-time work.
- Career education classes.
- Discussions with parents, teachers, already employed friends.
40
Q
Theories of Vocational Development
A
Two theoretical perspectives account for process of vocational development.
- Super (2001).
- Holland (1985).
41
Q
Career Development Theory - Super 1990
A
- Stage 1: Growth Span
- Childhood - Beginning to develop a sense of self and understanding of the world
- Stage 2: Exploration Stage
- Age 15-24 - Trying things out through classes, work experience and Hobbies
- Stage 3: Establishment
- Ages 25-44: Entry Level Skills Building and stabilisation through work experience
- Stage 4: Maintenance
- Ages 45-64: Continual adjustment process to improve position
- Stage 5: Decline
- Ages 64 and up: Deceleration, retirement planning and living
42
Q
5 Stages of Super’s Career Development Theory
A
- Growth (Birth – 14 years).
- Exploration (14 years – 25 years).
- Establishment (25 years – 45 years).
- Maintenance (45 years – 65 years).
- Decline or disengagement (65 years +).
- People cycle through each of these stages when they go through career transition
43
Q
Exploration
A
The Exploration stage has three substages:
- Vocational choice reflects interests only.
- Vocational choice reflects interests if these are congruent with ability.
- Vocational choices reflect interests, abilities, and availability of jobs.
44
Q
Vocational Choices - Holland 1985
A
- Vocational choice reflects personality traits.
- Satisfaction in career only possible if match exists between personality type and occupation.
45
Q
Six Personality Types - Holland
A
- Conventional.
- Realistic.
- Artistic.
- Enterprising.
- Investigative.
- Social.
46
Q
Data to Support Super’s Theory
A
- Developmental data support the distinctions made by Super (2001):
- Children focus upon more visible aspects of their worlds
- Appreciation of abstract qualities of world then increases
- Self concept becomes more abstract, differentiated, and adaptive with increasing age.
47
Q
Limitations of Career Development Theory
A
- Age factors may be more significant than theories suggest.
- Vocational development now occurs relatively late in adolescence.
- Super’s theory focuses on how and when individuals make vocational choices
- REASONS underlying those career choices is not identified
- No theory considers role of barriers in career decisions
48
Q
Barriers to Career Decision - Pryor & Taylor 1986
A
- Career exploration in 287 Australian technical college students, aged 17-42 years.
- 50% recognised need to achieve compromise between career ideals and available opportunities.
- 50% Needed support to cope with realities of job market.
Results also highlight way in which gender functions as barrier to career choice:
- 71% male students (cf 33% female students) sought desired careers with high visibility, income, difficult entry requirements without considering own work related abilities and values.
- Issue: Overly rigid adherence to sex-role stereotypes.
49
Q
Social Context and Career Choice
A
Two sets of influences have been shown as important in career choice and path:
- Parents, peers, and partners
- Individual acheivements highly correlated with acheivements of those around them.
- Sex and class based pressures and expectations.
50
Q
Six reasons for parent, peer and partner influence in career
A
- Attachment styles.
- Occupational attainment and educational attainment.
- Class differences in child rearing.
- Educational opportunities.
- Role models.
- Value context.
51
Q
Attachment and Work
A
- Hazan & Shaver (1990):
- Attachment style is a strong predictor of the way in which adults approach their careers.
52
Q
Secure Attachment and Work
A
Individuals with secure attachment to partners:
- Approached career with enthusiasm and confidence.
- High levels of satisfaction in career.
- Relationships PRIORITISED
- Partner’s needs placed ahead of demands of career.
53
Q
Avoidant Attachment and Work
A
Individuals with avoidant attachment to partners:
- Immersion in career left little time for exploration of intimacy
- Defensive.
- High levels of satisfaction in career.
54
Q
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment and Work
A
Individuals with anxious-ambivalent attachments:
- Preoccupation with anxiety and competition at work.
- Investment in career was the result of fear of being demoted or losing position, rather than love of work.
55
Q
Occupation and Education
A
- Occupational attainment depends strongly on educational attainment
- Not grades received, but passage through school
- Educational attainment is influenced by socioeconomic status.
56
Q
Class and Socialisation
A
- Individuals with middle class families and peers are more likely aspire to enter middle class employment
- Less so their working class counterparts to and enter middle class or high status occupations.
- Middle class parents are more likely to raise children in ways that facilitate:
- Development of strong needs for achievement.
- Interest in vocational exploration.
57
Q
Role Models
A
- Parents, siblings, and other models of influence act as important models for individuals’ occupational choices.
- An individual’s occupational choices are similar to those of parents
- Especially when family relationships are warm, close, and allow formation of strong identifications.
58
Q
Role Models for Women
A
- Modelling especially important for women:
- Daughters whose mothers are happily employed outside of the home are more likely to seek careers in addition to marriage and family.
- Young women whose mothers hold high status occupations are more likely to do so when they enter the labour force.
- Adolescent males and females have less gender stereotyped views about dual-career arrangements if they grew up in dual-career households.
59
Q
Value Context in Occupational Choice
A
Parents and peers influence young adults’ occupational choices by:
- Establishing a value context in which some occupational choices are encouraged, while others are not
- Middle class → autonomy, independence, self-direction.
- Working class → conformity, obedience.
60
Q
Career and Gender
A
- The individual’s gender affects his/her career and occupational choices.
- Consider the following results from the Office of National Statistics in the UK (2013):
- Women are over-represented in service jobs (pink collar jobs) and jobs that require a lower skills level (also the jobs that receive lower pay).
- Women’s choices reflected concerns of needing to balance family and career at some time in the future.
61
Q
Career at Mid-Life and Beyond
A
- Changes in career satisfactionn
- Career development Theory
- A period of turmoil, uncertainty and upheaval in career
- Mid-Career Crisis
62
Q
Changes in Career Satisfaction
A
THREE stages:
- Cooling-down of ambitious purposive striving of establishment phase.
- Strenuous critical self-analysis:
- Lowered self-esteem (Murphy & Burck, 1976).
- Increased awareness and re-evaluation of life’s priorities in relation to time (Neugarten, 1968).
- Redirection of work-related efforts.
One strategy to resolve mid-career crisis is to embark on new and different line of work.
63
Q
Mid-Career Change Advantages
A
- Enables us find avenues to express aspects of personality neglected during first career.
- New career requires period of new learning
- Facilitates cognitive development.
- Development of new skills arising through negotiation of new challenges and new social connections
64
Q
L. Eugene Thomas 1980
A
Changing career Mid-Life
- 73 working men between ages of 34 and 54 years who abandoned prestigious professional and managerial positions.
- 48% Wanted better fit between life values and work
- Supports Levinson’s arguement that mid-life crisis concerns life philosophy + Career issues
- 13% Insecurity in old jobs & promise of security in new job.
- 11% Desire for better pay.
65
Q
Six Factors that Influence Second Career Satisfaction
A
SIX factors influence second career satisfaction in adulthood:
- Voluntary decision.
- Economic support during transition period.
- Support from partner.
- Availability of role models who have made similar change.
- Career counsellors who support option of change as feasible and desirable.
- Timing of transition in relation to family life and original career.
66
Q
- Atchley (1976)
FOUR phases to the retirement process:
- Honeymoon.
- Disenchantment.
- Reorientation.
- Stability.
A
67
Q
Retirement - Honeymoon and Disenchantment
A
Honeymoon:
- Period of hedonism.
Disenchantment.
- Confront long-term realities
- Depression.
- Uncertainty.
68
Q
Retirement - Reorietation and Stability
A
Reorientation:
- Re-evaluation - THREE resources important:
- Good physical health.
- Adequate finances.
- Strong long term marital relationship.
Stability:
- Return of satisfaction.
69
Q
Career Development Conclusions
A
- Contrary to suggestions of earlier lifespan theorists (e.g., Freud), development continues throughout adulthood.
- Development occurs through negotiation of issues in central domains of work and love.
- Social development through work occurs throughout stages of:
- Career choice.
- Career development.
- Career evaluation.
- Career retirement.
- The world of work is therefore a significant domain for social development in adulthood.
- However, work also reciprocally affects love in the social development process.
70
Q
A
