Slides Week 5 Flashcards
1
Q
Bonding
A
- The early relationship formed between mother and infant
- Early belief that post birth bonding was critical for later social development.
- It is now thought that attachments are formed with infants through daily interaction.
- Infants are predisposed to respond to human interaction:
- A few days after birth Infants show clear preference for their mother’s face.
- At One year children use their mother’s emotional expressions to guide their own behaviour in ambiguous situations
2
Q
Social Referencing
A
- Relying on another person’s emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation
- Starts at 8–10 months
- Caregiver’s role very important
- Helps evaluate safety and security
- Guides actions
- Aids in gathering information about others
3
Q
Bonding and Temperament
A
The infant’s temperament is determines:
- The type and amount of social interaction in which they engage with others.
- The quality of the bonds established with their primary caregivers
4
Q
Temperament Chart
A
Elements of Personality
- Melancholic
- Choleric
- Phlegmatic
- Sanguine
5
Q
Measure and Observe Temperament
A
- Difficult to define and measure and observe
- No clear-cut distinction between temperament and personality
- Key dimension of personality
- Evident from birth.
- Shapes Attachment and subsequent intimate relationships.
6
Q
Three General Temperament Patterns
A
- Easy (Flexible)
- Slow to warm up (Fearful)
- Difficult (Feisty)
Each individual’s temperament shows their style of expressing needs and emotions
7
Q
Temperament Type - Basic Clusters
A
- Chess & Thomas Basic Clusters
8
Q
Temperament - Australian Study
A
- Sanson, Prior, Oberklaid 1985
- 2,443 representative Melbourne families
- Infants aged 4 months - 8 months
- Four temperaments identified
- Babies rated middle of most of the dimensions that showed difference between easy and difficult
- Easy 39%
- Average 40%
- Slow to warm up 8%
- Difficult 12%
9
Q
Temperamental Differance
A
- Cause of temperamental difference unclear
- Possible psychological basis suggests association between colic, sleep disturbance and temperament classification
- Not related to:
- Birth order effects
- Birth in Rural v Urban environment
- Individual Gender
- Evidence for Cohort difference indicating environmental factors shape temperament
10
Q
Temperamental Difference - Smart & Sanso 2005
A
- Smart & Sanson (2005):
- Compared infant temperament patterns in two cohorts of infants.
- Australian Temperament Project (ATP): commenced in 1983
- Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC): commenced in 2004
- THREE facets of temperament style assessed:
- Approach-Sociability, Cooperation-adaptability, Irritability-soothability
- Findings were that ATP infants scored higher in irritability than LSAC infants.
- Reason:
- Parents of LSAC infants older and better educated.
- Improved personal and social resources (e.g., maturity, income, parent education) for parenting role.
11
Q
Tempermental Stability
A
- Persistences of infant temperament over time is likley but not inevitable
- Mood tone is most likely to be stable over time
12
Q
Mood Tone
A
refers to the overall tone of a person’s feelings
13
Q
A
14
Q
Temperamental Stability - Young, Fox & Zahn-Waxler (1999):
A
- High activity + negative mood at four months (i.e., difficult) à less altruism & empathy at 2 years (i.e., less responsive to mother’s distress).
15
Q
Temperamental Stability - Lewis (1993)
A
- Negative mood tone (frequent expression of intense negative emotions – anger, distress) at 3 months
- Poor cognitive performance at 4 years (even after other variables controlled for).
16
Q
Temperamental Stability - Caspi & Silva (1995)
A
- 800 NZ boys and girls from birth -18 years
- “Lack of control” at 3 years [rough in play (Activity), distractible, hard staying still (Distractibility), dramatic mood swings (Responsiveness)]
- Risk taking, sensation seeking, low regard for authority, negative emotional response to everyday events, enmeshment in adversarial relationships at 18 years.
- Explanation: environmental engineering
- Shy child growing up in extroverted environment = more likely to be rejected
17
Q
Temperamental Stability - Continuity & Change
A
- There are both continuities and change in temperament over time:
- Studies have shown clear longitudinal continuity of temperament
- Explanation: Children as niche pickers – select environments that match their genetic predispositions
- Patterns of interactions lead to same conditions being recreated
- Goodness of fit With child temperament + parenting styles
18
Q
Goodness of Fit
A
- Thomas & Chess 1977
- Degree of overlap between infant’s temperament and parents image of ideal child
- If good fit then continuity of temperament is observed
- If poor fit then Parental effort to change infant can modify initial temperament tendancies
- If modification is successful the discontinuity in temperament is observed
19
Q
Conclusions about Temperament
A
- Biological basis to temperament
- A number of facets/dimensions to temperament
- Children’s temperament matters for their development and well being
- Reactivity/Irritability/cooperation in infancy can put a child at risk for development of behaviour problems (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity)
- Temperament influences development directly and indirectly through in the type of interactions it elicits from others around the child.
20
Q
Attachment Defined
A
- Deep, affectionate, enduring relationship to another individual.
- Bowlby (1969):
- Studies of infants and children orphaned in WWII.
- Infants biologically motivated to form attachments because they ensure survival.
21
Q
Role of the Mother - Bowlby
A
- Studies of institutionalised children in the 1940s and 1950s
- Influenced development of contemporary attachment theories.
- Bowlby: subsequent problems of these children resulted from being deprived of the experience of bonding to a mother.
- Children deprived of consistent care by a mother were:
- Developmentally delayed.
- Showed later forms of psychopathology, e.g., delinquent personalities.
- This hypothesis = Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis.
22
Q
A
23
Q
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
A
- Bowlby
- Suggests that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.
- Originally believed the effects to be permanent and irreversible.
24
Q
Role of the Father
A
- Bowlby:
- Institutionalised infants who were also deprived of fathers
- Their later psychopathology was not attributed to paternal absence.
- Initially suggested that fathers are as crucial to their child’s development as mothers.
- However, it also shows that fathers have a unique role in the child’s development.
25
Q
Role of the Father - Peterson
A
- Father’s role been so downplayed that paternal deprivation is considered “normal”, even for a child in an intact family environment (Peterson, 2010, p. 151).
- Research shows fathers may be first object of attachment for some infants (see Peterson, 2013, p. 158-162).
26
Q
Role of the Father - Schaffer & Emerson 1964
A
- 60 Scottish infants.
- Even in homes where the mother was the primary caregiver, some infants formed their first emotional bonds with:
- Fathers.
- Grandparents.
27
Q
Role of the Father - Ainsworth
A
- Study of Ugandan infants
- Fathers were primary attachment figus in 5-20% of cases
- Subsequent researchers interested in examining how fathers might contribute to infant and child attachment behaviours.
28
Q
Historical Research Fathers - Lamb 1977
A
- Qualitative difference between type of care provided by each parent for infants.
- Mothers → Nurturant acts of parenting, e.g., feeding, changing, dressing, and comforting the child.
- Fathers → Engage in play activities with the child.
29
Q
Historical Research Fathers - Russell 1978
A
- Russell (1978):
- Fathers devote approximately 13 hours per week to parenting.
- Much of this time is involved in play activities with children.
- This research is 40 Years old!!
30
Q
Contemporary Fathering
A
- Rochlen, McKelly & Whittacker (2010):
- Increase in the numbers of fathers who choose to stay at home and care for their children, with 65% increase in numbers from 2004-2007.
- However, 50% of fathers reported a stigmatising incident, with 67% of incidents perpetrated by stay at home mothers.
- Australian statistics: 4-5% of two-parent families have stay-at-home fathers (80,000 in 2016, AIFS).
- Come to this role for various reasons, however still face stigmatisation
- Gender role expectations have not changed significantly
31
Q
Attachment Aspects
A
Bowlby: Attachment behaviour has Four Aspects:
- Proximity Maintenance
- Safe Haven
- Secure Base
- Separation Distress
32
Q
Proximity Maintenance
A
Child maintains close proximity to caregiver
33
Q
Safe Haven
A
Child turns to caregiver for comfort when frightened or threatened
34
Q
Secure Base
A
Child considers caregiver as providing reliable base to come back to.
35
Q
Separation Distress
A
Child is distressed when separated from caregiver
36
Q
Separation
A
- When infants are separated from caregivers, anxiety occurs
- Three stages of the separation process
- Protest
- Despair
- Detachment
37
Q
Working Model
A
- Repeated experiences with caregiver establish a Working Model.
- Children Internalise experiences with caregivers and the way they are treated/valued
- Important to overcoming separation anxiety and judging situations
- Based on likely response of caregiver if they were present at the time
- If something goes wrong, knowing they will be protected
- This working model provides a prototype for all subsequent relationships (friendships, love relationships, faith experiences).
38
Q
Comfort or Food?
A
- Early research on attachment was also interested in the question of what led to an infant developing an attachment to a caregiver.
- Is comfort or food more important?
- This question was addressed in research by Harry Harlow in 1959.
39
Q
Harry Harlow 1959
A
- His observational studies were conducted using rhesus monkeys.
- Harlow was able to establish that comfort was crucial in establishing attachment.
- Monkeys separated from mothers at birth.
- Raised using two artificial mothers:
- Wire mother that provided food.
- Cloth mother that provided no food.
- Preference for cloth mother, especially when fearful.
40
Q
Harlow - Consequences of No Attachment
A
Harlow (1959) isolated infant monkeys showed:
- Withdrawal.
- Rocking.
- Huddling.
- Unable to form sexual relationships as adults.
- When female monkeys had babies, tended to:
- Ignore them.
- Abuse them when they became distressed.
41
Q
Consequences of No Attachment - In Humans
A
- In cases where human children have been denied the opportunity to form attachments, similar negative consequences to Harlow Study have been observed.
- Genie Wiley
- Child of Rage
- Tragedy of Orphanages
42
Q
Later Attachment Research
A
- Ainsworth (1967, 1978):
- Research with infants and caregivers in Uganda then the US.
- Developed a protocol for the systematic observation of attachment behaviours in the laboratory à the “Strange Situation”.
- This situation escalates stress that infants experience
43
Q
Strange Situation Experiment
A
8 stages that each increases anxiety
- Mother and infant enter unfamiliar room.
- Mother sits down and infant is free to explore the room.
- An unfamiliar adult enters the room.
- The infant is left alone with the stranger.
- The mother returns and the stranger leaves.
- The mother leaves the infant alone in the room.
- The stranger returns as a substitute for the mother.
- The stranger leaves the room and the mother returns to the room.
44
Q
Attachement Styes
A
TWO types of attachment:
- Secure - 66%.
- Insecure - 34%.
- Avoidant à Detachment - 22%.
- Anxious-resistant (ambivalent) à Protest - 12%.
- Disorganized (later research).
- Attachment patterns created in part by quality of care given by caregiver
45
Q
Attachment Styles - Secure
A
- Warm, affectionate, consistent.
- Child welcomes mother’s return and seeks closeness to her (most common)
46
Q
Attachement Style - Avoidant
A
- Distant, unresponsive, inexpressive.
- Child avoids or ignores their mother when she returns
47
Q
Attachement Styles - Ambivalent
A
- Intrusive, inconsistent, uncertain.
- Child is upset when their mother leaves
- When she returns the child exhibits anger at mother while seeking to be close to her
48
Q
Attachment Styles - Disorganised
A
- Abusive, depressed.
- Child may approach mother but gaze away, and may show odd motor behaviour and dazed facial expressions
49
Q
Evaluating Attachment Theory
A
50
Q
Evaluate Attachment Theory
A
- Attachments may be reversed if initial conditions that give rise to the attachments are changed.
- Interaction of temperament with attachment style
- Child’s temperament may help to shape caregiver’s style of interaction with child
- Attachments styles might define relationships, not individuals
- Context may affect type of attachment behaviour exhibited
- Model of self may be as important as model of others in determining attachment style.
51
Q
Parenting Styles
A
- Temperament, attachment, and deprivation points to significance of primary caregivers in shaping later personality and behaviour.
- Diana Baumrind’s research on parenting styles and their effect.
52
Q
Parenting Styles - Baumrind 1971; 1991
A
Australian & European American parents tend to one of four parenting styles:
- Authoritarian
- Permissive
- Authoritative
- Uninvolved
Based on Two Dimensions
- Parental Responsiveness/Warmth.
- Parental Demandingness/Control.
53
Q
Authoritarian Parent Style
A
- Place high value on obedience
- Relatively strict, punitive, and unsympathetic
- Curb the child’s will
- High Control, Low Warmth.
54
Q
Permissive Parent Styles
A
- Exert minimal control over their child
- More affectionate
- Lax with discipline
- Give the child a great deal of freedom
- Low Control, High Warmth.
55
Q
Authoritative Parent Style
A
- Reason with their children
- Encourage give-and-take and setting limits
- Demands are reasonable and consistent
- Give their child more responsibility with age
- Moderate/High Control, High Warmth.
56
Q
A
57
Q
Uninvolved Parent Style
A
- AKA rejecting/neglecting parents
- Indifferent to their child
- Put their own needs above that of the child
- Do not monitor the child’s activities
- Low Control, Low Warmth.
58
Q
Children of Authoritative Parents
A
- High Acceptance, High Control Parent
- Friendly, cooperative, self-reliant, socially responsible children, socially competent
59
Q
Children of Authoritarian Parents
A
- Low Acceptance, High Control Parents
- Unhappy, fearful children
- Have low self-esteem and assertiveness
- Weak communication skills
60
Q
Children of Permissive Parents
A
- High Acceptance, Low Control
- Impulsive children who lack control
- Lack respect for others
- Difficult peer-relations
61
Q
Children of Uninvolved Parents
A
- Low Acceptance, Low Control
- Socially incompetent children
- Immature, dependent, have low self-esteem
- Display antisocial behavior
62
Q
Authoritative Parenting Leads to Better Outcomes
A
- Social competence in middle childhood
- Outgoingness, prosocial assertiveness, strong social responsibility, moral values
- Cultural differences:
- Authoritative parenting rare in non-Western cultures
- Asian/latin cultures: expect obedience; parents have greater authority
- Not considered domineering in the Western sense
- Indigenous parenting practices – child oriented (children’s needs put first), age-integrated (young children active participants of community), autonomy given to children, parents model behaviour
- Correlational research – relationship between parenting style and child development a lot more complex
- Reciprocal relationship between parents and children
63
Q
Self and Identity
A
Explorations of social and emotional development during childhood and adolescence have focused on TWO entities
- Self - All characteristics of a person
- Identity - Who we are, career, beliefs, gender roles
- Understandings of self and identity become increasingly complex with age
64
Q
Infant Self Understanding
A
- Hard to study babies sense of self as infants cannot verbalise how they experience themselves.
- Research has investigated self-recognition using the mirror self-recognition paradigm.
- Example: Rouge test
- Before one year of age, children do not recognise themselves in the mirror.
- However, by two years of age, most infants can recognise themselves in a mirror.
- Conclusion: self-recognition begins at approximately 18 months of age.
65
Q
Self Understanding in Childhood
A
By three years of age, children show FOUR forms of self-awareness in language that reflect a sense of self.
- Self-referral, e.g., ‘me want’.
- Possession, e.g., ‘my toy’.
- Self-monitoring, e.g., ‘do it myself’.
- Conscious awareness of body shape and appearance
66
Q
Self Understanding in Middle Childhood
A
By middle childhood, children have a concrete understanding of themselves manifested in:
- Physical description, e.g., “I’m different from Jennifer because she has brown hair and I have blonde hair”.
- Active description, e.g., self-description in terms of activities, such as play.
- Unrealistic positive over-estimations
67
Q
Unrealistic Positive Overstimations
A
- Represents an overestimation of personal attributes, e.g., ‘I’m never scared’, ‘I’m so strong’
Occur because:
- Children have difficulty in differentiating desired and actual competence.
- Cannot generate an ideal self that is distinguished from a real self.
- Rarely engage in social comparison.
68
Q
Self Understanding in Childhood
A
- By late childhood, children’s self-understandings are becoming increasingly complex
- Although still tied very much to the concrete
69
Q
Childhood Self Understanding Includes
A
- Psychological characteristics - Helpful, mean, smart
- Social description - Girl scout, chess player
- Real v. ideal self - What I can do and what I would like to be able to do. (Erikson Industry v Inferiority
- Increased realism - More realistic about abilities compared to younger childhood
- Social comparison. - Better/worse than peers in certain aspects
70
Q
Self-understandings in adolescence are complex and increasingly abstract.
- The revolve around THREE elements:
- Possible selves.
- Identity.
- Self-consciousness.
A
71
Q
Possible Selves
A
- Erikson (1953):
- Adolescents imagine possible selves.
- Versions of self that adolescents try on for fit, imagining what lives might be like.
- Possible selves may be:
- Positive (what we hope to become).
- Negative (what we fear becoming).
72
Q
Possible Selves - Knox, Funk, Elliot & Bush 2000
A
Most possible selves are positive (hoped for selves), although some may be negative (feared selves).
- Knox, Funk, Elliott, & Bush (2000)
- Adolescents in high school generate an average of 13 possible selves.
- Generate mostly positive selves.
- Females more negative/feared selves for relationships/ interpersonal connections
- i.e., not ever dating, never having children, being a bad mother
- Males more negative/feared selves for occupation
- i.e., getting a bad job, being a loser, not becoming famous
73
Q
Identity
A
- Erikson (1953):
- Social development across lifespan occurs in eight stages.
- Identity v. Role Confusion is the stage associated with adolescence.
- Changes in identity that occur during adolescence involve substantial reorganisation and restructuring of the individual’s sense of self.
74
Q
Identity is Constructed From . . .
A
- Past experiences.
- Present encounters.
- What an individual anticipates for his/her future.
75
Q
Identity Formation
A
- Identity is developed through the process of individuation.
- Individuation involves the following steps:
- Separation from primary caregivers.
- Dependency shifted onto peers.
- Psychological autonomy leads to a unique identity.
76
Q
Individuation
A
- A process of transformation whereby the personal and collective unconscious are brought into consciousness
- Acheived by means of dreams, active imagination, or free association
- Assimilated into the whole personality.
- It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche
77
Q
Identity Formation
A
- Some personality characteristics are important for identity formation:
- Self-esteem (encourages risk taking).
- Self-monitoring (encourages sensitivity to social cues).
- Ego resiliency (increases flexibility).
- Openness to experience (expands scope of options that adolescents are able to consider).
78
Q
Identity Domains
A
- Initial domains of identity proposed by Erikson (1953, 1968):
- Vocation (career).
- Ideology (spirituality/faith and politics).
- Gender, sexuality and interpersonal relationships.
79
Q
Identity Status
A
- TWO criteria essential for the attainment of identity:
- Crisis/Exploration:
- Commitment:
- Four Identity statuses that can be achieved
- Depend on absence or prescence of crisis/exploration
- Depends on commitment to each of the identity domains
- Acheived
- Foreclosed
- Moratorium
- Diffused
80
Q
Crisis/Exploration:
A
- Active examination of possible selves
- Exploring alternatives to self
81
Q
Commitment to Self
A
- Personal involvement + allegiance to one self
- Personal investment in identity
82
Q
Discuss Identity Statuses
A
- The identity statuses form a developmental progression.
- Regressive changes, from higher to lower statuses, may occur.
- An adolescent may be in two or three statuses in different domains at the same time.
83
Q
Identity Diffusion
A
- Not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments
- Individuals who are identity diffused display the highest levels of psychological and interpersonal problems:
- Most socially withdrawn.
- Lowest levels of intimacy with peers.
84
Q
Diffusion and Parenting
A
- Parenting practices that feature a lack of warmth are most associated with inability to commit, and therefore lead to identity diffusion
85
Q
Identity Foreclosure
A
- Made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
- Example: following a career path chosen by parent
- Individuals who are identity foreclosed demonstrate:
- Authoritarian values.
- High levels of prejudice.
- Highest need for social approval.
- Lowest levels of autonomy.
- Greatest closeness to parents.
86
Q
Foreclosure and Parenting
A
- Parenting features little encouragement of individuality
- Most associated with problems in engaging in extensive exploration
- Associated with authoritarian parenting
87
Q
Moratorium (crisis)
A
- In a middle of a crisis but their commitment is vaguely defined.
- Adolescents who are in the stage of moratorium demonstrate:
- Highest levels of anxiety.
- Highest levels of conflict over issues of authority.
- Lowest levels of rigidity.
- Lowest levels of authoritarianism.
88
Q
Identity Acheivement
A
- Undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.
- Adolescents who are identity achieved demonstrate:
- Highest achievement motivation.
- Highest levels of moral reasoning.
- Highest levels of intimacy with peers.
- Greatest reflectiveness.
- Highest career maturity
89
Q
Acheivement and Parenting
A
- Parenting practices that have been associated with identity achievement have been shown to be:
- Warm.
- Not excessively constraining.
- That is, authoritative.
90
Q
Self Consciousness - Elkind (1978)
A
- The adolescent experience is characterised by a particular type of egocentrism.
- Adolescents believe that other individuals in their worlds are as pre-occupied with themselves and their thoughts as they are.
91
Q
Self Consciousness
A
TWO consequences:
-
Imaginary audience
- Imagines critical evaluation by others
- Increased self-consciousness.
-
Personal fable:
- Personal uniqueness.
- Invulnerability
- Adolescents feel immune to risks that affect others.
*
92
Q
Self Esteem
A
- How the individual feels about self.
- Positive or negative evaluation of self;
- Affective dimension of self-understanding.
- Self esteem has two aspects:
- Global - overall.
- Dimensional - specific domains, e.g., mathematics.
93
Q
Self Esteem and Parenting
A
- Relationships with parents provide foundations of self-esteem.
- Adolescents will have positive self-esteem if :
- Parents use authoritative parenting styles.
- Parents stress:
- Self-reliance.
- Shared decision-making.
- Willingness to listen.
94
Q
Self Esteem and Gender
A
- In childhood, there is no difference in levels of self-esteem manifested by males and females.
- However, at adolescence, females report significantly lower levels of self-esteem than males.
- Trend continues until mid-life.
95
Q
Differences in Self Esteem by Gender
A
- Females more likely than males to evaluate negatively the characteristics about themselves that they believe to be most important.
- Females rate feared selves as more likely to occur than do males.
- Females’ self-esteem is more vulnerable than males’ in the face of change
96
Q
Conclusion about Temperament
A
- Research on temperament and attachment demonstrates the importance of biologically based predispositions and parental/caregiver interaction in social development.
- Strategies that caregivers use to raise children are important in shaping subsequent social development.
- Biological and environmental factors interact to produce the social developments of childhood and adolescence in terms of self-understanding, identity and self-esteem.
- These social developments provide the foundations for subsequent developments in vocational choice, gender, sexuality and relationships, and ideological framework
