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2052 - Lifespan Development > Slides Week 5 > Flashcards

Slides Week 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Bonding

A
  • The early relationship formed between mother and infant
  • Early belief that post birth bonding was critical for later social development.
  • It is now thought that attachments are formed with infants through daily interaction.
  • Infants are predisposed to respond to human interaction:
  • A few days after birth Infants show clear preference for their mother’s face.
  • At One year children use their mother’s emotional expressions to guide their own behaviour in ambiguous situations
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2
Q

Social Referencing

A
  • Relying on another person’s emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation
  • Starts at 8–10 months
  • Caregiver’s role very important
  • Helps evaluate safety and security
  • Guides actions
  • Aids in gathering information about others
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3
Q

Bonding and Temperament

A

The infant’s temperament is determines:

  • The type and amount of social interaction in which they engage with others.
  • The quality of the bonds established with their primary caregivers
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4
Q

Temperament Chart

A

Elements of Personality

  • Melancholic
  • Choleric
  • Phlegmatic
  • Sanguine
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5
Q

Measure and Observe Temperament

A
  • Difficult to define and measure and observe
  • No clear-cut distinction between temperament and personality
  • Key dimension of personality
  • Evident from birth.
  • Shapes Attachment and subsequent intimate relationships. ​
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6
Q

Three General Temperament Patterns

A
  • Easy (Flexible)
  • Slow to warm up (Fearful)
  • Difficult (Feisty)

Each individual’s temperament shows their style of expressing needs and emotions

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7
Q

Temperament Type - Basic Clusters

A
  • Chess & Thomas Basic Clusters
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8
Q

Temperament - Australian Study

A
  • Sanson, Prior, Oberklaid 1985
  • 2,443 representative Melbourne families
  • Infants aged 4 months - 8 months
  • Four temperaments identified
  • Babies rated middle of most of the dimensions that showed difference between easy and difficult
  1. Easy 39%
  2. Average 40%
  3. Slow to warm up 8%
  4. Difficult 12%
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9
Q

Temperamental Differance

A
  • Cause of temperamental difference unclear
  • Possible psychological basis suggests association between colic, sleep disturbance and temperament classification
  • Not related to:
    • Birth order effects
    • Birth in Rural v Urban environment
    • Individual Gender
  • Evidence for Cohort difference indicating environmental factors shape temperament
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10
Q

Temperamental Difference - Smart & Sanso 2005

A
  • Smart & Sanson (2005):
  • Compared infant temperament patterns in two cohorts of infants.
    • Australian Temperament Project (ATP): commenced in 1983
    • Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC): commenced in 2004
  • THREE facets of temperament style assessed:
    • Approach-Sociability, Cooperation-adaptability, Irritability-soothability
  • Findings were that ATP infants scored higher in irritability than LSAC infants.
  • Reason:
    • Parents of LSAC infants older and better educated.
    • Improved personal and social resources (e.g., maturity, income, parent education) for parenting role.
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11
Q

Tempermental Stability

A
  • Persistences of infant temperament over time is likley but not inevitable
  • Mood tone is most likely to be stable over time
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12
Q

Mood Tone

A

refers to the overall tone of a person’s feelings

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13
Q
A
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14
Q

Temperamental Stability - Young, Fox & Zahn-Waxler (1999):

A
  • High activity + negative mood at four months (i.e., difficult) à less altruism & empathy at 2 years (i.e., less responsive to mother’s distress).
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15
Q

Temperamental Stability - Lewis (1993)

A
  • Negative mood tone (frequent expression of intense negative emotions – anger, distress) at 3 months
  • Poor cognitive performance at 4 years (even after other variables controlled for). ​
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16
Q

Temperamental Stability - Caspi & Silva (1995)

A
  • 800 NZ boys and girls from birth -18 years
  • “Lack of control” at 3 years [rough in play (Activity), distractible, hard staying still (Distractibility), dramatic mood swings (Responsiveness)]
  • Risk taking, sensation seeking, low regard for authority, negative emotional response to everyday events, enmeshment in adversarial relationships at 18 years.
  • Explanation: environmental engineering
    • Shy child growing up in extroverted environment = more likely to be rejected
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17
Q

Temperamental Stability - Continuity & Change

A
  • There are both continuities and change in temperament over time:
  • Studies have shown clear longitudinal continuity of temperament
  • Explanation: Children as niche pickers – select environments that match their genetic predispositions
  • Patterns of interactions lead to same conditions being recreated
  • Goodness of fit With child temperament + parenting styles
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18
Q

Goodness of Fit

A
  • Thomas & Chess 1977
  • Degree of overlap between infant’s temperament and parents image of ideal child
  • If good fit then continuity of temperament is observed
  • If poor fit then Parental effort to change infant can modify initial temperament tendancies
  • If modification is successful the discontinuity in temperament is observed
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19
Q

Conclusions about Temperament

A
  • Biological basis to temperament
  • A number of facets/dimensions to temperament
  • Children’s temperament matters for their development and well being
  • Reactivity/Irritability/cooperation in infancy can put a child at risk for development of behaviour problems (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity)
  • Temperament influences development directly and indirectly through in the type of interactions it elicits from others around the child.
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20
Q

Attachment Defined

A
  • Deep, affectionate, enduring relationship to another individual.
  • Bowlby (1969):
  • Studies of infants and children orphaned in WWII.
  • Infants biologically motivated to form attachments because they ensure survival.
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21
Q

Role of the Mother - Bowlby

A
  • Studies of institutionalised children in the 1940s and 1950s
  • Influenced development of contemporary attachment theories.
  • Bowlby: subsequent problems of these children resulted from being deprived of the experience of bonding to a mother.
  • Children deprived of consistent care by a mother were:
    • Developmentally delayed.
    • Showed later forms of psychopathology, e.g., delinquent personalities.
  • This hypothesis = Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis. ​
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22
Q
A
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23
Q

Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

A
  • Bowlby
  • Suggests that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.
  • Originally believed the effects to be permanent and irreversible.
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24
Q

Role of the Father

A
  • Bowlby:
  • Institutionalised infants who were also deprived of fathers
  • Their later psychopathology was not attributed to paternal absence.
  • Initially suggested that fathers are as crucial to their child’s development as mothers.
  • However, it also shows that fathers have a unique role in the child’s development.
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25
Q

Role of the Father - Peterson

A
  • Father’s role been so downplayed that paternal deprivation is considered “normal”, even for a child in an intact family environment (Peterson, 2010, p. 151).
  • Research shows fathers may be first object of attachment for some infants (see Peterson, 2013, p. 158-162).
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26
Q

Role of the Father - Schaffer & Emerson 1964

A
  • 60 Scottish infants.
  • Even in homes where the mother was the primary caregiver, some infants formed their first emotional bonds with:
    • Fathers.
    • Grandparents.
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27
Q

Role of the Father - Ainsworth

A
  • Study of Ugandan infants
  • Fathers were primary attachment figus in 5-20% of cases
  • Subsequent researchers interested in examining how fathers might contribute to infant and child attachment behaviours.
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28
Q

Historical Research Fathers - Lamb 1977

A
  • Qualitative difference between type of care provided by each parent for infants.
  • Mothers → Nurturant acts of parenting, e.g., feeding, changing, dressing, and comforting the child.
  • Fathers → Engage in play activities with the child.
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29
Q

Historical Research Fathers - Russell 1978

A
  • Russell (1978):
  • Fathers devote approximately 13 hours per week to parenting.
  • Much of this time is involved in play activities with children.
  • This research is 40 Years old!!
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30
Q

Contemporary Fathering

A
  • Rochlen, McKelly & Whittacker (2010):
  • Increase in the numbers of fathers who choose to stay at home and care for their children, with 65% increase in numbers from 2004-2007.
  • However, 50% of fathers reported a stigmatising incident, with 67% of incidents perpetrated by stay at home mothers.
  • Australian statistics: 4-5% of two-parent families have stay-at-home fathers (80,000 in 2016, AIFS).
  • Come to this role for various reasons, however still face stigmatisation
  • Gender role expectations have not changed significantly
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31
Q

Attachment Aspects

A

Bowlby: Attachment behaviour has Four Aspects:

  • Proximity Maintenance
  • Safe Haven
  • Secure Base
  • Separation Distress
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32
Q

Proximity Maintenance

A

Child maintains close proximity to caregiver

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33
Q

Safe Haven

A

Child turns to caregiver for comfort when frightened or threatened

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34
Q

Secure Base

A

Child considers caregiver as providing reliable base to come back to.

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35
Q

Separation Distress

A

Child is distressed when separated from caregiver

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36
Q

Separation

A
  • When infants are separated from caregivers, anxiety occurs
  • Three stages of the separation process
    • Protest
    • Despair
    • Detachment
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37
Q

Working Model

A
  • Repeated experiences with caregiver establish a Working Model.
  • Children Internalise experiences with caregivers and the way they are treated/valued
  • Important to overcoming separation anxiety and judging situations
  • Based on likely response of caregiver if they were present at the time
  • If something goes wrong, knowing they will be protected
  • This working model provides a prototype for all subsequent relationships (friendships, love relationships, faith experiences).
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38
Q

Comfort or Food?

A
  • Early research on attachment was also interested in the question of what led to an infant developing an attachment to a caregiver.
  • Is comfort or food more important?
  • This question was addressed in research by Harry Harlow in 1959.
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39
Q

Harry Harlow 1959

A
  • His observational studies were conducted using rhesus monkeys.
  • Harlow was able to establish that comfort was crucial in establishing attachment.
  • Monkeys separated from mothers at birth.
  • Raised using two artificial mothers:
    • Wire mother that provided food.
    • Cloth mother that provided no food.
  • Preference for cloth mother, especially when fearful.
40
Q

Harlow - Consequences of No Attachment

A

Harlow (1959) isolated infant monkeys showed:

  • Withdrawal.
  • Rocking.
  • Huddling.
  • Unable to form sexual relationships as adults.
  • When female monkeys had babies, tended to:
    • Ignore them.
    • Abuse them when they became distressed.
41
Q

Consequences of No Attachment - In Humans

A
  • In cases where human children have been denied the opportunity to form attachments, similar negative consequences to Harlow Study have been observed.
    • Genie Wiley
    • Child of Rage
    • Tragedy of Orphanages
42
Q

Later Attachment Research

A
  • Ainsworth (1967, 1978):
  • Research with infants and caregivers in Uganda then the US.
  • Developed a protocol for the systematic observation of attachment behaviours in the laboratory à the “Strange Situation”.
  • This situation escalates stress that infants experience
43
Q

Strange Situation Experiment

A

8 stages that each increases anxiety

  • Mother and infant enter unfamiliar room.
  • Mother sits down and infant is free to explore the room.
  • An unfamiliar adult enters the room.
  • The infant is left alone with the stranger.
  • The mother returns and the stranger leaves.
  • The mother leaves the infant alone in the room.
  • The stranger returns as a substitute for the mother.
  • The stranger leaves the room and the mother returns to the room.
44
Q

Attachement Styes

A

TWO types of attachment:

  • Secure - 66%.
  • Insecure - 34%.
    • Avoidant à Detachment - 22%.
    • Anxious-resistant (ambivalent) à Protest - 12%.
    • Disorganized (later research).
  • Attachment patterns created in part by quality of care given by caregiver
45
Q

Attachment Styles - Secure

A
  • Warm, affectionate, consistent.
  • Child welcomes mother’s return and seeks closeness to her (most common)
46
Q

Attachement Style - Avoidant

A
  • Distant, unresponsive, inexpressive.
  • Child avoids or ignores their mother when she returns
47
Q

Attachement Styles - Ambivalent

A
  • Intrusive, inconsistent, uncertain.
  • Child is upset when their mother leaves
  • When she returns the child exhibits anger at mother while seeking to be close to her
48
Q

Attachment Styles - Disorganised

A
  • Abusive, depressed.
  • Child may approach mother but gaze away, and may show odd motor behaviour and dazed facial expressions
49
Q

Evaluating Attachment Theory

A
50
Q

Evaluate Attachment Theory

A
  • Attachments may be reversed if initial conditions that give rise to the attachments are changed.
  • Interaction of temperament with attachment style
  • Child’s temperament may help to shape caregiver’s style of interaction with child
  • Attachments styles might define relationships, not individuals
  • Context may affect type of attachment behaviour exhibited
  • Model of self may be as important as model of others in determining attachment style.
51
Q

Parenting Styles

A
  • Temperament, attachment, and deprivation points to significance of primary caregivers in shaping later personality and behaviour.
  • Diana Baumrind’s research on parenting styles and their effect.
52
Q

Parenting Styles - Baumrind 1971; 1991

A

Australian & European American parents tend to one of four parenting styles:

  • Authoritarian
  • Permissive
  • Authoritative
  • Uninvolved

Based on Two Dimensions

  • Parental Responsiveness/Warmth.
  • Parental Demandingness/Control.
53
Q

Authoritarian Parent Style

A
  • Place high value on obedience
  • Relatively strict, punitive, and unsympathetic
  • Curb the child’s will
  • High Control, Low Warmth.
54
Q

Permissive Parent Styles

A
  • Exert minimal control over their child
  • More affectionate
  • Lax with discipline
  • Give the child a great deal of freedom
  • Low Control, High Warmth.
55
Q

Authoritative Parent Style

A
  • Reason with their children
  • Encourage give-and-take and setting limits
  • Demands are reasonable and consistent
  • Give their child more responsibility with age
  • Moderate/High Control, High Warmth.
56
Q
A
57
Q

Uninvolved Parent Style

A
  • AKA rejecting/neglecting parents
  • Indifferent to their child
  • Put their own needs above that of the child
  • Do not monitor the child’s activities
  • Low Control, Low Warmth.
58
Q

Children of Authoritative Parents

A
  • High Acceptance, High Control Parent
    • Friendly, cooperative, self-reliant, socially responsible children, socially competent
59
Q

Children of Authoritarian Parents

A
  • Low Acceptance, High Control Parents
    • Unhappy, fearful children
    • Have low self-esteem and assertiveness
    • Weak communication skills
60
Q

Children of Permissive Parents

A
  • High Acceptance, Low Control
    • Impulsive children who lack control
    • Lack respect for others
    • Difficult peer-relations
61
Q

Children of Uninvolved Parents

A
  • Low Acceptance, Low Control
    • Socially incompetent children
    • Immature, dependent, have low self-esteem
    • Display antisocial behavior
62
Q

Authoritative Parenting Leads to Better Outcomes

A
  • Social competence in middle childhood
  • Outgoingness, prosocial assertiveness, strong social responsibility, moral values
  • Cultural differences:
    • Authoritative parenting rare in non-Western cultures
    • Asian/latin cultures: expect obedience; parents have greater authority
    • Not considered domineering in the Western sense
  • Indigenous parenting practices – child oriented (children’s needs put first), age-integrated (young children active participants of community), autonomy given to children, parents model behaviour
  • Correlational research – relationship between parenting style and child development a lot more complex
  • Reciprocal relationship between parents and children
63
Q

Self and Identity

A

Explorations of social and emotional development during childhood and adolescence have focused on TWO entities

  • Self - All characteristics of a person
  • Identity - Who we are, career, beliefs, gender roles
  • Understandings of self and identity become increasingly complex with age
64
Q

Infant Self Understanding

A
  • Hard to study babies sense of self as infants cannot verbalise how they experience themselves.
  • Research has investigated self-recognition using the mirror self-recognition paradigm.
  • Example: Rouge test
  • Before one year of age, children do not recognise themselves in the mirror.
  • However, by two years of age, most infants can recognise themselves in a mirror.
  • Conclusion: self-recognition begins at approximately 18 months of age. ​
65
Q

Self Understanding in Childhood

A

By three years of age, children show FOUR forms of self-awareness in language that reflect a sense of self.

  • Self-referral, e.g., ‘me want’.
  • Possession, e.g., ‘my toy’.
  • Self-monitoring, e.g., ‘do it myself’.
  • Conscious awareness of body shape and appearance
66
Q

Self Understanding in Middle Childhood

A

By middle childhood, children have a concrete understanding of themselves manifested in:

  • Physical description, e.g., “I’m different from Jennifer because she has brown hair and I have blonde hair”.
  • Active description, e.g., self-description in terms of activities, such as play.
  • Unrealistic positive over-estimations
67
Q

Unrealistic Positive Overstimations

A
  • Represents an overestimation of personal attributes, e.g., ‘I’m never scared’, ‘I’m so strong’

Occur because:

  • Children have difficulty in differentiating desired and actual competence.
  • Cannot generate an ideal self that is distinguished from a real self.
  • Rarely engage in social comparison. ​
68
Q

Self Understanding in Childhood

A
  • By late childhood, children’s self-understandings are becoming increasingly complex
  • Although still tied very much to the concrete
69
Q

Childhood Self Understanding Includes

A
  • Psychological characteristics - Helpful, mean, smart
  • Social description - Girl scout, chess player
  • Real v. ideal self - What I can do and what I would like to be able to do. (Erikson Industry v Inferiority
  • Increased realism - More realistic about abilities compared to younger childhood
  • Social comparison. - Better/worse than peers in certain aspects
70
Q

Self-understandings in adolescence are complex and increasingly abstract.

  • The revolve around THREE elements:
    • Possible selves.
    • Identity.
    • Self-consciousness.
A
71
Q

Possible Selves

A
  • Erikson (1953):
  • Adolescents imagine possible selves.
  • Versions of self that adolescents try on for fit, imagining what lives might be like.
  • Possible selves may be:
    • Positive (what we hope to become).
    • Negative (what we fear becoming).
72
Q

Possible Selves - Knox, Funk, Elliot & Bush 2000

A

Most possible selves are positive (hoped for selves), although some may be negative (feared selves).

  • Knox, Funk, Elliott, & Bush (2000)
  • Adolescents in high school generate an average of 13 possible selves.
  • Generate mostly positive selves.
  • Females more negative/feared selves for relationships/ interpersonal connections
    • i.e., not ever dating, never having children, being a bad mother
  • Males more negative/feared selves for occupation
    • i.e., getting a bad job, being a loser, not becoming famous
73
Q

Identity

A
  • Erikson (1953):
  • Social development across lifespan occurs in eight stages.
  • Identity v. Role Confusion is the stage associated with adolescence.
  • Changes in identity that occur during adolescence involve substantial reorganisation and restructuring of the individual’s sense of self.
74
Q

Identity is Constructed From . . .

A
  • Past experiences.
  • Present encounters.
  • What an individual anticipates for his/her future.
75
Q

Identity Formation

A
  • Identity is developed through the process of individuation.
  • Individuation involves the following steps:
    • Separation from primary caregivers.
    • Dependency shifted onto peers.
    • Psychological autonomy leads to a unique identity.
76
Q

Individuation

A
  • A process of transformation whereby the personal and collective unconscious are brought into consciousness
  • Acheived by means of dreams, active imagination, or free association
  • Assimilated into the whole personality.
  • It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche
77
Q

Identity Formation

A
  • Some personality characteristics are important for identity formation:
    • Self-esteem (encourages risk taking).
    • Self-monitoring (encourages sensitivity to social cues).
    • Ego resiliency (increases flexibility).
    • Openness to experience (expands scope of options that adolescents are able to consider).
78
Q

Identity Domains

A
  • Initial domains of identity proposed by Erikson (1953, 1968):
    • Vocation (career).
    • Ideology (spirituality/faith and politics).
    • Gender, sexuality and interpersonal relationships.
79
Q

Identity Status

A
  • TWO criteria essential for the attainment of identity:
    • Crisis/Exploration:
    • Commitment:
  • Four Identity statuses that can be achieved
  • Depend on absence or prescence of crisis/exploration
  • Depends on commitment to each of the identity domains
    • Acheived
    • Foreclosed
    • Moratorium
    • Diffused
80
Q

Crisis/Exploration:

A
  • Active examination of possible selves
  • Exploring alternatives to self
81
Q

Commitment to Self

A
  • Personal involvement + allegiance to one self
  • Personal investment in identity
82
Q

Discuss Identity Statuses

A
  • The identity statuses form a developmental progression.
  • Regressive changes, from higher to lower statuses, may occur.
  • An adolescent may be in two or three statuses in different domains at the same time.
83
Q

Identity Diffusion

A
  • Not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments
  • Individuals who are identity diffused display the highest levels of psychological and interpersonal problems:
  • Most socially withdrawn.
  • Lowest levels of intimacy with peers.
84
Q

Diffusion and Parenting

A
  • Parenting practices that feature a lack of warmth are most associated with inability to commit, and therefore lead to identity diffusion
85
Q

Identity Foreclosure

A
  • Made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
    • Example: following a career path chosen by parent
  • Individuals who are identity foreclosed demonstrate:
    • Authoritarian values.
    • High levels of prejudice.
    • Highest need for social approval.
    • Lowest levels of autonomy.
    • Greatest closeness to parents.
86
Q

Foreclosure and Parenting

A
  • Parenting features little encouragement of individuality
  • Most associated with problems in engaging in extensive exploration
  • Associated with authoritarian parenting
87
Q

Moratorium (crisis)

A
  • In a middle of a crisis but their commitment is vaguely defined.
  • Adolescents who are in the stage of moratorium demonstrate:
    • Highest levels of anxiety.
    • Highest levels of conflict over issues of authority.
    • Lowest levels of rigidity.
    • Lowest levels of authoritarianism.
88
Q

Identity Acheivement

A
  • Undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.
  • Adolescents who are identity achieved demonstrate:
    • Highest achievement motivation.
    • Highest levels of moral reasoning.
    • Highest levels of intimacy with peers.
    • Greatest reflectiveness.
    • Highest career maturity
89
Q

Acheivement and Parenting

A
  • Parenting practices that have been associated with identity achievement have been shown to be:
    • Warm.
    • Not excessively constraining.
    • That is, authoritative.
90
Q

Self Consciousness - Elkind (1978)

A
  • The adolescent experience is characterised by a particular type of egocentrism.
  • Adolescents believe that other individuals in their worlds are as pre-occupied with themselves and their thoughts as they are.
91
Q

Self Consciousness

A

TWO consequences:

  • Imaginary audience
    • Imagines critical evaluation by others
    • Increased self-consciousness.
  • Personal fable:
    • Personal uniqueness.
    • Invulnerability
    • Adolescents feel immune to risks that affect others.
      *
92
Q

Self Esteem

A
  • How the individual feels about self.
  • Positive or negative evaluation of self;
  • Affective dimension of self-understanding.
  • Self esteem has two aspects:
    • Global - overall.
    • Dimensional - specific domains, e.g., mathematics.
93
Q

Self Esteem and Parenting

A
  • Relationships with parents provide foundations of self-esteem.
  • Adolescents will have positive self-esteem if :
    • Parents use authoritative parenting styles.
  • Parents stress:
    • Self-reliance.
    • Shared decision-making.
    • Willingness to listen.
94
Q

Self Esteem and Gender

A
  • In childhood, there is no difference in levels of self-esteem manifested by males and females.
  • However, at adolescence, females report significantly lower levels of self-esteem than males.
  • Trend continues until mid-life.
95
Q

Differences in Self Esteem by Gender

A
  • Females more likely than males to evaluate negatively the characteristics about themselves that they believe to be most important.
  • Females rate feared selves as more likely to occur than do males.
  • Females’ self-esteem is more vulnerable than males’ in the face of change
96
Q

Conclusion about Temperament

A
  • Research on temperament and attachment demonstrates the importance of biologically based predispositions and parental/caregiver interaction in social development.
  • Strategies that caregivers use to raise children are important in shaping subsequent social development.
  • Biological and environmental factors interact to produce the social developments of childhood and adolescence in terms of self-understanding, identity and self-esteem.
  • These social developments provide the foundations for subsequent developments in vocational choice, gender, sexuality and relationships, and ideological framework

2052 - Lifespan Development (15 decks)

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