Slides Week 6 Flashcards
1
Q
Identity & Ideology
A
- Erikson (1968):
- Late adolescence
- Concern with politics and ideology increases.
- A product of identity crisis
- Adolescents desperate for an ideology worthy of their emotional investment
- 12 years to 18 years
- Identity vs. role confusion
- Fidelity
2
Q
Ideology
A
- The final aspect of identity to develop in adolescence.
- Ideology = Morality + Faith + Politics
3
Q
Moral Development
A
- Developing a set of principles to guide behaviour
- “Any changes in observed judgments, behaviours and emotions regarding standards of right and wrong that occur in certain contexts across the lifespan” (White, Hayes & Livesey, 2013, p. 404)
- Encompasses cognitive, emotional and behavioural aspects
- Changes in rules and conventions about what individuals should do in their interactions
4
Q
Morality in Babies
A
- Paul Bloom
- Biological/Evolutionary basis to moral behaviour
5
Q
Moral Development - Hoffman (1970)
A
- Moral maturity requires children to behave in accordance with ethical principles even when:
- Not ordered to do so by authority figure.
- No one is aware of them doing the right thing.
6
Q
Three Aspects of Moral Development
A
- Social-learning/social-cognitive.
- Psychoanalytic.
- Cognitive developmental
We will focus on Cognitive Development in Morality
7
Q
Moral Behaviour and Learning
A
- Moral behaviour is connected to basic learning processes, such as:
- Imitation.
- Reinforcement.
- Punishment.
8
Q
Imitation
A
- Role Models behaviour affects children’s behaviour
- Children are likely to adopt behaviour they see
9
Q
Reinforcement and Punishment
A
- Children are more likely to repeat moral behaviour when it is reinforced positively
- When children punished for immoral acts, those acts less likely to occur.
- Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent and contingent on behaviour
- Effectiveness depends on whether the child looks up to the role model
- Also depends on the child’s cognitive skill and ability to understand the lesson
10
Q
Contextually Dependent Moral Behaviour
A
- Moral behaviour is contextually dependent.
- Hartshorne & May (1928):
Observed moral responses of 11,000 children given opportunity to lie, cheat and steal in a variety of contexts
- No child completely honest or completely dishonest
- Influences to moral behaviour are pressure from peers & likeliness of getting caught
11
Q
Role of Cognition in Morality
A
- Social-cognitive theorists suggest that cognitive processes are central to learning moral behaviours.
- Mischel & Mischel (1975):
- TWO aspects to moral development:
- Moral competencies.
- Moral performance.
12
Q
Moral Competencies
A
- What individuals are capable of doing.
- What they know.
- What they are able to do (Skills).
- Awareness of moral rules and regulations.
- Cognitive ability to construct behaviour
13
Q
Moral Performance
A
- Determined by:
- Motivations.
- Rewards and incentives to act in moral way
14
Q
Self-Regulation
A
- Bandura (2002):
- Self-regulation:
- Central to moral development.
- Process of adopting standards of right and wrong that serve as guides and deterrents for conduct.
15
Q
Central Processes for Self Regulation
A
- Individual monitors their own conduct and conditions under which it occurs.
- Judge conduct in relation to moral standards.
- Regulate actions by consequences applied to the self
- Consequences aimed to provide satisfaction and self-worth.
16
Q
Importance of Self Control
A
- Central to process of self-regulation is self-control.
- Mischel (1974):
- Self control and ability to resist temptation is central to moral development.
- Marshmallow experiment
17
Q
Self-Control - Marshmallow Experiment
A
- 600 children, aged 4 to 6 years.
- Single marshmallow placed on table.
- Children told they could eat marshmallow, but if waited for 15 minutes, would be given second marshmallow to eat.
- Approximately 33% deferred gratification to obtain second marshmallow.
- Age related to self-control and deferred gratification:
- Older children better able to exercise self-control.
18
Q
Follow up Studies for Marshmallow Experiment
A
First follow-up study (1988):
- Children who had deferred gratification longer described by parents as being significantly more competent as adolescents.
Second follow-up study (1990):
- Children who had deferred gratification longer scored significantly higher in SATs.
19
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory - Morality
A
- Freud -TWO foundations for moral behaviour:
- Guilt.
- Desire to avoid feeling guilty.
20
Q
Superego
A
Moral branch of personality has TWO components:
- Ego-ideal:
- Rewards child by conveying sense of pride and personal value when child behaves according to ideal standards set by parents/caregivers.
- Conscience:
- Punishes child for behaviours disapproved of by parents/caregivers by making child feel guilty and worthless.
21
Q
Conscience
A
FIVE behaviours demonstrate existence of internalised conscience:
- Resistance to temptation.
- doing the right thing even when not at risk of detection and subsequent punishment.
- Guilt after transgression.
- doing the right things is prompted by fear of guilt rather than punishment.
- Articulation of rules.
- having reasons for behaving morally that go beyond risk of punishment; e.g., ‘It’s not fair’
- Confession.
- Publicly admitting to behaviour that would have otherwise gone undetected.
- Reparation.
- Making amends and working to reduce the damage caused by their behaviour.
6.
- Making amends and working to reduce the damage caused by their behaviour.
22
Q
Development of Conscience - Freud
A
- Feelings of anxiety and guilt central to moral development
- Children fear losing parental love and being punished for unacceptable desires toward the opposite sex parent.
- THEREFORE children internalise same-sex parent’s standards of right and wrong.
- Child turns hostility aimed at same-sex parent against the self.
- Experiences the threat/fear/hostility as guilt.
- Superego develops out of this process.
- Issue:
- Boys experience more powerful anxiety/guilt, leading to a stronger conscience development compared to girls = no evidence for this.
23
Q
Conscience Development - Kochanska & Aksan 2007
A
Young children:
- Aware of right and wrong.
- Can show empathy toward others.
- Experience guilt.
- Indicate discomfort following transgression.
Sensitive to violating rules.
24
Q
Guilt - Kochanska 2002
A
- 106 children in laboratory situation where led to believe had damaged something valuable.
- Behavioural indices of guilt were coded by observers
-
More guilt shown by:
- Girls.
- Children with fearful temperament.
-
Less guilt shown by:
- Boys.
- Children whose mothers used power assertive (i.e., authoritarian) disciplinary techniques.
25
Q
Piaget - Moral Reasoning
A
- Children require a cognitive understanding of reasons forbidden acts are wrong
- Need reasons why obedient behaviour is deemed to be truly moral or ethical.
- Tested children’s moral reasoning using dilemmas about ethical issues (e.g., lying) using semi-structured interviews around a pair of stories.
- Piaget asked children which of the characters deserved to be punished the most.
26
Q
Two Stages of Moral Developpment
A
- Heteronomous morality (5 to 9 years).
- Autonomous morality (10 years +).
27
Q
Heteronomouos Morality
A
- Below 10 years
- Authority figures determine right/wrong
- Need to obey will of authority figures
- Rules unchangeable
- Badness judged in terms of consequence, not motivations
- Punishment seen as an automatic consequence of offence (immanent justice)
- Motivations for transgressions irrelevant to judgments of morality.
- Authorities will punish harmful behaviour, even if unintentional
28
Q
Immanent Justice
A
- The beleif that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God)
- Breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment
29
Q
Autonomous Morality
A
- Ages 10-12+
- Awareness rules and laws created by people and these can change
- Badness viewed relative to intentions and meaning of action in context of greater good
- Understand punishment is not inevitable
30
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 1969
A
THREE premises underlying Kohlberg’s (1969) theory.
- Based on moral reasoning, not moral action.
- Unfolds in a stage-like manner.
- Based on a sense of social justice.
- 6 Stages of Moral Judgement and Behaviour
31
Q
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Judgement Development
A
- Three Levels of Development
- Preconventional
- Conventional
- Post-Conventional
- 6 Stages within these levels
- Heteronomous Morality
- Instrumental Morality
- Interpersonal Normative Morality
- Social System Morality
- Social Contract Morality
- Universal Ethical Principles
1.
32
Q
Pre Conventional - Heteronomous Morality
A
- What is right is following rules and avoiding punishment
- Do what you are told and avoid being in trouble
33
Q
Pre Conventional - Instrumental Morality
A
- Level 1: Stage 2 Kohlberg
- What is right is satisfying one’s own needs
- If it feels good then it is good
- Right is a reciprocal or agreement between others
34
Q
Conventional - Interpersonal Normative Morality
A
- What is right requires maintenance of Law and Order
- Requires Requires respect for authority and fulfilling one’s duty
- Involves contributing to society and the group
35
Q
Post Conventional - Social Contract Morality
A
- Level III - Stage 5 Kohlberg
- What is right depends on principles arrived at by consensus with others
- Respecting that people hold a variety of values
- Principles should be upheld in the interest of society’s welfare
36
Q
Post Conventional - Universal Ethical Principles
A
- Level 3: Stage 6 Kohlberg
- What is right depends on self chosen ethical principles
- Universal principles of justice
- equality of human rightss and respect for human dignity
- When laws violate these principles on acts in accordance with the principle not the law
37
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory
A
- Examined moral development in a sample of 10, 13, and 16 year old males, using a series of moral dilemmas.
- Dilemmas involved choice between obeying a law, rule or authority figure (or not doing so) while serving a human need.
- Moral reasoning was assessed on the reasons given rather than the decision itself
- Kohlberg (1969) identified a THREE level model of moral development, with TWO stages to each level.
- Levels reflect the stance taken by the individual in relation to the standards of his/her community
- Standards are encoded as laws, conventions, or customary ways of behaving.
38
Q
Stages of Moral Development
A
- Each stage is a prerequisite for the one that follows.
- Reasoning constructed from ideas at each stage develops from ideas less well articulated in previous stages.
- Movement from one stage to the next is prompted by the need to resolve conflict.
- Conflict arises when the individual realizes that others view things differently.
- Cognitive development places limits upon the level of moral development within which the individual functions.
39
Q
Kohlberg - The Final Model
A
- Preconventional → Individual
- Stage 1 → Heteronomous morality.
- Stage 2 → Instrumental hedonism.
- Conventional à Society
- Stage 3 → Conformity (Good boy/Good girl).
- Stage 4 → Law and order (Conformity to law/rule).
- Post-Conventional à Above society
- Stage 5 → Social contract.
- Stage 6 → Universal ethical principles.
40
Q
Support for Kohlberg’s Theory
A
- Moral development does occur in stages in an age related sequence.
- Moral development is related to cognitive development.
- Opportunities for role-taking are important in development of moral reasoning.
41
Q
Limitations of Kohlberg’s Theory
A
- Cultural bias.
- Challenges the idea position that moral development is universal.
- -ollectivist societies vs individualistic societies
- Focus on moral reasoning and ignored emotional component e.g., intuition/or emotional ways of responding
- Haidt: Moral thinking starts with an intuitive gut reaction and then moves in to the deliberative moral reasoning
- Says too little about other influences on moral behavior (i.e., parents’ influence)
- Gender bias?
42
Q
Gilligan’s Theory
A
- Gilligan (1977; 1982):
- Theories offered by Piaget and Kohlberg reflect masculine concern with individuation, not feminine concern with connection.
- Therefore, theories are gender biased.
- Kohlberg’s (1969) theory of moral development focuses only on JUSTICE.
- Care perspective is devalued in theories of moral development
43
Q
Gilligan’s Theory - Two Parallel lines of moral development
A
- Justice perspective:
- Rights, rules and abstract principles of justice.
- Care perspective:
- Interpersonal relations and ethics of compassion, care and responsibility to others.
44
Q
Gilligan Study 1982
A
- Research uses sample of 39 women, considering termination of pregnancy.
- Identifies THREE stages and TWO transitions in development of ethic of care.
-
Preconventional
- Goal - Individual survival
- Transition is from selfishness to responsibility to others
-
Conventional
- Goal - Self-sacrifice to goodness
- Transition is from goodness to truth (truth that she is a person too)
-
Postconventional
- Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self
45
Q
Limitations of Gilligan’s Theory
A
Despite appeal of Gilligan’s ideas:
- Little evidence to support her claim that Kohlberg’s theory is systematically biased against females.
- Most studies, women reason as complexly as men do (Jaffe & Hyde, 2000; Walker, 2006).
- Both men and women use care-based reasoning on dilemmas about relationships
- Also with justice-based reasoning on issues about rights
46
Q
Moral Dilemma Findings Haidt et al 1993
A
- Morality varied across the cultural groups
- High SES group from Philadelphia vs. Low SES group from Brazil
- Relationships among moral judgement, harm, and affective reactions vary cross-culturally
- Also saw differences across social classes
47
Q
DistributiveJjustice
A
As children interact with groups of peers in school develop notions of fairness in distribution of rewards and benefits
48
Q
Four Principles of Distributive Justice
A
- Principle of Need
- Equality Rule
- Equity Rule
- Winner Takes All
49
Q
Principle of Need
A
- Allocates goods and services to compensate individuals who suffer hardship and deprivation
- Adults distribute rewards within family (i.e., spending more money on a sick child).
- Children when
- Over 7 years.
- Distributing rewards within family cf strangers
- When strong sense of identification with mother cf father.
50
Q
Equality Rule
A
- ‘Everyone is equal’.
- Each individual’s share of collective reward should be the same, regardless of unique contribution
- Rules for friendships, teams, other solidarity relationships
- Children when
- Female.
- Young.
- These groups endorse principle across wider range of situations than boys & older children.
51
Q
Equity Rule
A
- To each according to his/her contribution (proportionality).
- Recipient’s rewards are in direct correspondence with input for group effort.
- Adults - Impersonal business dealings
- Children - Increases with trnsition from preoperational to concrete operational thinking
52
Q
Winner Takes All
A
- One individual gains exclusive possession of entire reward.
- Consequence of application of equity principle in ‘zero sum’ games Oonly one indivisible reward to be allocated among performers
- Fundamental to competitive achievement in challenges and competitions
53
Q
Cultural Comparisons
A
- Siegal - Japanese children made more use of the need principle
- Australian children applied need principle less when distributing payments across highly productive workers
- Attributed to differing parental socialisation practices
- Collectivist vs individualist societies
54
Q
Influence of Religeon & Ideology
A
Pew Research Center (2008):
- National poll of over 35,000 US adults found:
- 92% à believe in God.
- 75% à pray weekly.
- 56% à religion is very important.
- 39% attend religious services at least weekly.
55
Q
Religious Development
A
Pew Research Center (2015):
- Religious climate in US changing, with:
- Fewer Christians Catholics, Protestants (although number of Black Protestants stable since 2008).
- More Evangelical protestants and individuals who are unaffiliated (20% increase in unaffiliated since 2008).
- Unaffiliated equal across generations.
56
Q
Age & Religious Development
A
- Religiosity declines from adolescence into adulthood.
- Reflection of individualism becomes important for adolescents as they make transition into adulthood.
- Religious participation begins again once the individual has children of his/her own.
- From early 30s through late 60s and 70s, significant increase in spirituality occurs.
- Increase is greater for women than men.
- Older adults indicate that religious faith is most significant influence in life
57
Q
Gender and Religious Development
A
- More so than men, women:
- Have stronger interest in religion.
- Participate more in both organised and personal forms of religion
- More likely to believe in higher power or presence.
- More likely to feel religion is important dimension of lives.
58
Q
Religiosity Outcomes
A
Ascribing to a system of faith has both positive and negative consequences.
- Donahue and Benson (1995): religiousness in adolescents correlates
- Positively with prosocial values and behaviour
-
Negatively with:
- Suicidal ideation and attempts.
- Substance abuse.
- Premature sexual involvement.
- Delinquency.
*
59
Q
A
60
Q
A
61
Q
Religiosity Outcomes - Research
A
- Recent studies have shown religiousness/spirituality associated with:
- Reduction in depression (Braam & Koenig, 2019),
- Psychological wellbeing
- Decreased suicidal thoughts/behaviour, drug/alcohol use/abuse (Moreira-Almeida, Neto, & Koenig, 2006)
- Types of religious practice important
- Greater impact on people undergoing stressful circumstances
- Distinctions between definiitons of religion and spirituality
62
Q
Consequences of Religiosity
A
In old age, religion meets important psychological needs:
- Helps to face impending death.
- Helps to find and maintain sense of meaningfulness in life.
- Supports acceptance of losses of old age.
- Offers site for social support.
- Provides opportunities for teaching and leadership roles.
63
Q
Religion Conclusions
A
- Important aspects of ideology that develop at adolescence are morality, faith, and politics
- Theoretical perspectives combine to show thow cognitive and role taking abilities combine with the importance of the acceptance
- Produce moral and spiritual thought and behaviour throughout childhood, adolescence and into adulthood.
