Slides Week 6

Question 1

Identity & Ideology

Answer 1

• Erikson (1968):
• Late adolescence
• Concern with politics and ideology increases.
• A product of identity crisis
• Adolescents desperate for an ideology worthy of their emotional investment
• 12 years to 18 years
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Fidelity

Question 2

Ideology

Answer 2

• The final aspect of identity to develop in adolescence.
• Ideology = Morality + Faith + Politics

Question 3

Moral Development

Answer 3

• Developing a set of principles to guide behaviour
• “Any changes in observed judgments, behaviours and emotions regarding standards of right and wrong that occur in certain contexts across the lifespan” (White, Hayes & Livesey, 2013, p. 404)
• Encompasses cognitive, emotional and behavioural aspects
• Changes in rules and conventions about what individuals should do in their interactions

Question 4

Morality in Babies

Answer 4

• Paul Bloom
• Biological/Evolutionary basis to moral behaviour

Question 5

Moral Development - Hoffman (1970)

Answer 5

• Moral maturity requires children to behave in accordance with ethical principles even when:
  
  • Not ordered to do so by authority figure.
  • No one is aware of them doing the right thing.

Question 6

Three Aspects of Moral Development

Answer 6

• Social-learning/social-cognitive.
• Psychoanalytic.
• Cognitive developmental

We will focus on Cognitive Development in Morality

Question 7

Moral Behaviour and Learning

Answer 7

• Moral behaviour is connected to basic learning processes, such as:
  
  • Imitation.
  • Reinforcement.
  • Punishment.

Question 8

Imitation

Answer 8

• Role Models behaviour affects children’s behaviour
• Children are likely to adopt behaviour they see

Question 9

Reinforcement and Punishment

Answer 9

• Children are more likely to repeat moral behaviour when it is reinforced positively
• When children punished for immoral acts, those acts less likely to occur.
• Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent and contingent on behaviour
• Effectiveness depends on whether the child looks up to the role model
• Also depends on the child’s cognitive skill and ability to understand the lesson

Question 10

Contextually Dependent Moral Behaviour

Answer 10

• Moral behaviour is contextually dependent.
• Hartshorne & May (1928):

Observed moral responses of 11,000 children given opportunity to lie, cheat and steal in a variety of contexts

• No child completely honest or completely dishonest
• Influences to moral behaviour are pressure from peers & likeliness of getting caught

Question 11

Role of Cognition in Morality

Answer 11

• Social-cognitive theorists suggest that cognitive processes are central to learning moral behaviours.
• Mischel & Mischel (1975):
• TWO aspects to moral development:
  
  • Moral competencies.
  • Moral performance.

Question 12

Moral Competencies

Answer 12

• What individuals are capable of doing.
• What they know.
• What they are able to do (Skills).
• Awareness of moral rules and regulations.
• Cognitive ability to construct behaviour

Question 13

Moral Performance

Answer 13

• Determined by:
  
  • Motivations.
  • Rewards and incentives to act in moral way

Question 14

Self-Regulation

Answer 14

• Bandura (2002):
• Self-regulation:
  
  • Central to moral development.
  • Process of adopting standards of right and wrong that serve as guides and deterrents for conduct.

Question 15

Central Processes for Self Regulation

Answer 15

• Individual monitors their own conduct and conditions under which it occurs.
• Judge conduct in relation to moral standards.
• Regulate actions by consequences applied to the self
• Consequences aimed to provide satisfaction and self-worth.

Question 16

Importance of Self Control

Answer 16

• Central to process of self-regulation is self-control.
• Mischel (1974):
• Self control and ability to resist temptation is central to moral development.
• Marshmallow experiment

Question 17

Self-Control - Marshmallow Experiment

Answer 17

• 600 children, aged 4 to 6 years.
• Single marshmallow placed on table.
• Children told they could eat marshmallow, but if waited for 15 minutes, would be given second marshmallow to eat.
• Approximately 33% deferred gratification to obtain second marshmallow.
• Age related to self-control and deferred gratification:
• Older children better able to exercise self-control.

Question 18

Follow up Studies for Marshmallow Experiment

Answer 18

First follow-up study (1988):

• Children who had deferred gratification longer described by parents as being significantly more competent as adolescents.

Second follow-up study (1990):

• Children who had deferred gratification longer scored significantly higher in SATs.

Question 19

Psychoanalytic Theory - Morality

Answer 19

• Freud -TWO foundations for moral behaviour:
  
  • Guilt.
  • Desire to avoid feeling guilty.

Question 20

Superego

Answer 20

Moral branch of personality has TWO components:

• Ego-ideal:
  
  • Rewards child by conveying sense of pride and personal value when child behaves according to ideal standards set by parents/caregivers.
• Conscience:
  
  • Punishes child for behaviours disapproved of by parents/caregivers by making child feel guilty and worthless.

Question 21

Conscience

Answer 21

FIVE behaviours demonstrate existence of internalised conscience:

1. Resistance to temptation.
   
   • doing the right thing even when not at risk of detection and subsequent punishment.
2. Guilt after transgression.
   
   • doing the right things is prompted by fear of guilt rather than punishment.
3. Articulation of rules.
   
   • having reasons for behaving morally that go beyond risk of punishment; e.g., ‘It’s not fair’
4. Confession.
   
   • Publicly admitting to behaviour that would have otherwise gone undetected.
5. Reparation.
   
   • Making amends and working to reduce the damage caused by their behaviour.
     6.

Question 22

Development of Conscience - Freud

Answer 22

• Feelings of anxiety and guilt central to moral development
• Children fear losing parental love and being punished for unacceptable desires toward the opposite sex parent.
• THEREFORE children internalise same-sex parent’s standards of right and wrong.
• Child turns hostility aimed at same-sex parent against the self.
• Experiences the threat/fear/hostility as guilt.
• Superego develops out of this process.
• Issue:
  
  • Boys experience more powerful anxiety/guilt, leading to a stronger conscience development compared to girls = no evidence for this. ​

Question 23

Conscience Development - Kochanska & Aksan 2007

Answer 23

Young children:

• Aware of right and wrong.
• Can show empathy toward others.
• Experience guilt.
• Indicate discomfort following transgression.

Sensitive to violating rules.

Question 24

Guilt - Kochanska 2002

Answer 24

• 106 children in laboratory situation where led to believe had damaged something valuable.
• Behavioural indices of guilt were coded by observers
• More guilt shown by:
  
  • Girls.
  • Children with fearful temperament.
• Less guilt shown by:
  
  • Boys.
  • Children whose mothers used power assertive (i.e., authoritarian) disciplinary techniques. ​

Question 25

Piaget - Moral Reasoning

Answer 25

• Children require a cognitive understanding of reasons forbidden acts are wrong
• Need reasons why obedient behaviour is deemed to be truly moral or ethical.
• Tested children’s moral reasoning using dilemmas about ethical issues (e.g., lying) using semi-structured interviews around a pair of stories.
• Piaget asked children which of the characters deserved to be punished the most.

Question 26

Two Stages of Moral Developpment

Answer 26

• Heteronomous morality (5 to 9 years).
• Autonomous morality (10 years +).

Question 27

Heteronomouos Morality

Answer 27

• Below 10 years
• Authority figures determine right/wrong
• Need to obey will of authority figures
• Rules unchangeable
• Badness judged in terms of consequence, not motivations
• Punishment seen as an automatic consequence of offence (immanent justice)
• Motivations for transgressions irrelevant to judgments of morality.
• Authorities will punish harmful behaviour, even if unintentional

Question 28

Immanent Justice

Answer 28

• The beleif that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God)
• Breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment

Question 29

Autonomous Morality

Answer 29

• Ages 10-12+
• Awareness rules and laws created by people and these can change
• Badness viewed relative to intentions and meaning of action in context of greater good
• Understand punishment is not inevitable

Question 30

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 1969

Answer 30

THREE premises underlying Kohlberg’s (1969) theory.

• Based on moral reasoning, not moral action.
• Unfolds in a stage-like manner.
• Based on a sense of social justice.
• 6 Stages of Moral Judgement and Behaviour

Question 31

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Judgement Development

Answer 31

• Three Levels of Development
  
  • Preconventional
  • Conventional
  • Post-Conventional
• 6 Stages within these levels
  
  1. Heteronomous Morality
  2. Instrumental Morality
  3. Interpersonal Normative Morality
  4. Social System Morality
  5. Social Contract Morality
  6. Universal Ethical Principles

1.

Question 32

Pre Conventional - Heteronomous Morality

Answer 32

• What is right is following rules and avoiding punishment
• Do what you are told and avoid being in trouble

Question 33

Pre Conventional - Instrumental Morality

Answer 33

• Level 1: Stage 2 Kohlberg
• What is right is satisfying one’s own needs
• If it feels good then it is good
• Right is a reciprocal or agreement between others

Question 34

Conventional - Interpersonal Normative Morality

Answer 34

• What is right requires maintenance of Law and Order
• Requires Requires respect for authority and fulfilling one’s duty
• Involves contributing to society and the group

Question 35

Post Conventional - Social Contract Morality

Answer 35

• Level III - Stage 5 Kohlberg
• What is right depends on principles arrived at by consensus with others
• Respecting that people hold a variety of values
• Principles should be upheld in the interest of society’s welfare

Question 36

Post Conventional - Universal Ethical Principles

Answer 36

• Level 3: Stage 6 Kohlberg
• What is right depends on self chosen ethical principles
• Universal principles of justice
• equality of human rightss and respect for human dignity
• When laws violate these principles on acts in accordance with the principle not the law

Question 37

Kohlberg’s Theory

Answer 37

• Examined moral development in a sample of 10, 13, and 16 year old males, using a series of moral dilemmas.
• Dilemmas involved choice between obeying a law, rule or authority figure (or not doing so) while serving a human need.
• Moral reasoning was assessed on the reasons given rather than the decision itself
• Kohlberg (1969) identified a THREE level model of moral development, with TWO stages to each level.
• Levels reflect the stance taken by the individual in relation to the standards of his/her community
• Standards are encoded as laws, conventions, or customary ways of behaving. ​

Question 38

Stages of Moral Development

Answer 38

• Each stage is a prerequisite for the one that follows.
• Reasoning constructed from ideas at each stage develops from ideas less well articulated in previous stages.
• Movement from one stage to the next is prompted by the need to resolve conflict.
• Conflict arises when the individual realizes that others view things differently.
• Cognitive development places limits upon the level of moral development within which the individual functions.

Question 39

Kohlberg - The Final Model

Answer 39

• Preconventional → Individual
  
  • Stage 1 → Heteronomous morality.
  • Stage 2 → Instrumental hedonism.
• Conventional à Society
  
  • Stage 3 → Conformity (Good boy/Good girl).
  • Stage 4 → Law and order (Conformity to law/rule).
• Post-Conventional à Above society
  
  • Stage 5 → Social contract.
  • Stage 6 → Universal ethical principles.

Question 40

Support for Kohlberg’s Theory

Answer 40

• Moral development does occur in stages in an age related sequence.
• Moral development is related to cognitive development.
• Opportunities for role-taking are important in development of moral reasoning.

Question 41

Limitations of Kohlberg’s Theory

Answer 41

• Cultural bias.
  
  • Challenges the idea position that moral development is universal.
  • -ollectivist societies vs individualistic societies
• Focus on moral reasoning and ignored emotional component e.g., intuition/or emotional ways of responding
  
  • Haidt: Moral thinking starts with an intuitive gut reaction and then moves in to the deliberative moral reasoning
• Says too little about other influences on moral behavior (i.e., parents’ influence)
• Gender bias?

Question 42

Gilligan’s Theory

Answer 42

• Gilligan (1977; 1982):
• Theories offered by Piaget and Kohlberg reflect masculine concern with individuation, not feminine concern with connection.
• Therefore, theories are gender biased.
• Kohlberg’s (1969) theory of moral development focuses only on JUSTICE.
• Care perspective is devalued in theories of moral development

Question 43

Gilligan’s Theory - Two Parallel lines of moral development

Answer 43

• Justice perspective:
  
  • Rights, rules and abstract principles of justice.
• Care perspective:
  
  • Interpersonal relations and ethics of compassion, care and responsibility to others.

Question 44

Gilligan Study 1982

Answer 44

• Research uses sample of 39 women, considering termination of pregnancy.
• Identifies THREE stages and TWO transitions in development of ethic of care.
• Preconventional
  • Goal - Individual survival
  • Transition is from selfishness to responsibility to others
• Conventional
  
  • Goal - Self-sacrifice to goodness
  • Transition is from goodness to truth (truth that she is a person too)
• Postconventional
  
  • Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self

Question 45

Limitations of Gilligan’s Theory

Answer 45

Despite appeal of Gilligan’s ideas:

• Little evidence to support her claim that Kohlberg’s theory is systematically biased against females.
• Most studies, women reason as complexly as men do (Jaffe & Hyde, 2000; Walker, 2006).
• Both men and women use care-based reasoning on dilemmas about relationships
• Also with justice-based reasoning on issues about rights

Question 46

Moral Dilemma Findings Haidt et al 1993

Answer 46

• Morality varied across the cultural groups
• High SES group from Philadelphia vs. Low SES group from Brazil
• Relationships among moral judgement, harm, and affective reactions vary cross-culturally
• Also saw differences across social classes

Question 47

DistributiveJjustice

Answer 47

As children interact with groups of peers in school develop notions of fairness in distribution of rewards and benefits

Question 48

Four Principles of Distributive Justice

Answer 48

• Principle of Need
• Equality Rule
• Equity Rule
• Winner Takes All

Question 49

Principle of Need

Answer 49

• Allocates goods and services to compensate individuals who suffer hardship and deprivation
• Adults distribute rewards within family (i.e., spending more money on a sick child).
• Children when
  
  • Over 7 years.
  • Distributing rewards within family cf strangers
  • When strong sense of identification with mother cf father.

Question 50

Equality Rule

Answer 50

• ‘Everyone is equal’.
• Each individual’s share of collective reward should be the same, regardless of unique contribution
• Rules for friendships, teams, other solidarity relationships
• Children when
  
  • Female.
  • Young.
  • These groups endorse principle across wider range of situations than boys & older children.

Question 51

Equity Rule

Answer 51

• To each according to his/her contribution (proportionality).
• Recipient’s rewards are in direct correspondence with input for group effort.
• Adults - Impersonal business dealings
• Children - Increases with trnsition from preoperational to concrete operational thinking

Question 52

Winner Takes All

Answer 52

• One individual gains exclusive possession of entire reward.
• Consequence of application of equity principle in ‘zero sum’ games Oonly one indivisible reward to be allocated among performers
• Fundamental to competitive achievement in challenges and competitions

Question 53

Cultural Comparisons

Answer 53

• Siegal - Japanese children made more use of the need principle
• Australian children applied need principle less when distributing payments across highly productive workers
• Attributed to differing parental socialisation practices
• Collectivist vs individualist societies

Question 54

Influence of Religeon & Ideology

Answer 54

Pew Research Center (2008):

• National poll of over 35,000 US adults found:
  
  • 92% à believe in God.
  • 75% à pray weekly.
  • 56% à religion is very important.
  • 39% attend religious services at least weekly.

Question 55

Religious Development

Answer 55

Pew Research Center (2015):

• Religious climate in US changing, with:
  
  • Fewer Christians Catholics, Protestants (although number of Black Protestants stable since 2008).
  • More Evangelical protestants and individuals who are unaffiliated (20% increase in unaffiliated since 2008).
  • Unaffiliated equal across generations.

Question 56

Age & Religious Development

Answer 56

• Religiosity declines from adolescence into adulthood.
• Reflection of individualism becomes important for adolescents as they make transition into adulthood.
• Religious participation begins again once the individual has children of his/her own.
• From early 30s through late 60s and 70s, significant increase in spirituality occurs.
• Increase is greater for women than men.
• Older adults indicate that religious faith is most significant influence in life

Question 57

Gender and Religious Development

Answer 57

• More so than men, women:
• Have stronger interest in religion.
• Participate more in both organised and personal forms of religion
• More likely to believe in higher power or presence.
• More likely to feel religion is important dimension of lives.

Question 58

Religiosity Outcomes

Answer 58

Ascribing to a system of faith has both positive and negative consequences.

• Donahue and Benson (1995): religiousness in adolescents correlates
• Positively with prosocial values and behaviour
• Negatively with:
  
  • Suicidal ideation and attempts.
  • Substance abuse.
  • Premature sexual involvement.
  • Delinquency.
    *

Question 61

Religiosity Outcomes - Research

Answer 61

• Recent studies have shown religiousness/spirituality associated with:
  
  • Reduction in depression (Braam & Koenig, 2019),
  • Psychological wellbeing
  • Decreased suicidal thoughts/behaviour, drug/alcohol use/abuse (Moreira-Almeida, Neto, & Koenig, 2006)
• Types of religious practice important
• Greater impact on people undergoing stressful circumstances
• Distinctions between definiitons of religion and spirituality

Question 62

Consequences of Religiosity

Answer 62

In old age, religion meets important psychological needs:

• Helps to face impending death.
• Helps to find and maintain sense of meaningfulness in life.
• Supports acceptance of losses of old age.
• Offers site for social support.
• Provides opportunities for teaching and leadership roles.

Question 63

Religion Conclusions

Answer 63

• Important aspects of ideology that develop at adolescence are morality, faith, and politics
• Theoretical perspectives combine to show thow cognitive and role taking abilities combine with the importance of the acceptance
• Produce moral and spiritual thought and behaviour throughout childhood, adolescence and into adulthood.