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Mammalian Physiology > Slide Set 1 > Flashcards

Slide Set 1 Flashcards

1
Q

__ & __ are best learned together as function of a cell tissue or organ

A

Anatomy & physiology

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2
Q

What are the smallest parts of the body?

A

Atoms

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3
Q

__ organise and differentiate together to form a tissue

A

cells

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4
Q

groups of organs work together to form a __

A

system

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5
Q

When you use only the naked eye to study the body and its parts

A

Gross anatomy

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6
Q

Which systems work together to maintain homeostasis?

A

Endocrine & nervous

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7
Q

What are the 11 organ systems?

A
  • skeletal
  • muscular
  • cardiovascular/circulatory
  • integumentary
  • digestive
  • respiratory
  • nervous
  • endocrine
  • urinary
  • reproductive
  • lymphatic
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8
Q

Smallest unit of structure capable of carrying out all life processes :

A

Cells

= smallest and most numerous units that make up tissues

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9
Q

What do mammalian cells have ? (3)

A

nucleus
cytoplasm
membrane

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10
Q

Particularity of cells?

A
  • Differentiate to perform unique functions

- All cells have the same DNA

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11
Q

What are factors essential for cell differentiation?

A
  • cell-cell communication
  • growth factors
  • ECM composition
  • cell location in differentiating embryo
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12
Q

What forms the 3 primary germ layers?

A

Gastrulation

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13
Q

What are the primary germ layers?

A
  • endoderm (lung, pancreas, liver, GI tract, UG tract)
  • mesoderm (bone, kidney, heart)
  • ectoderm (eye, nervous system, skin)
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14
Q

Endoderm

A

Lines digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder

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15
Q

Ectoderm

A

Integument (skin), lens of the eye and nervous system

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16
Q

Mesoderm

A

Circulatory system, excretory system, muscles, connective tissue, organ

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17
Q

What are the 4 major tissue types?

A
  • epithelial
  • connective tissue
  • muscle
  • nervous
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18
Q

The EPITHELIAL tissue

  • characteristics :
  • functions :
  • where
A
  • characteristics = 1 or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM
  • functions = covers and protect the body surfaces, lines body cavities, movement of substances (secretory)
  • found = skin, lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary, glands of the body
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19
Q

The CONNECTIVE tissue

  • characteristics :
  • functions :
  • where
A
  • characteristics = few cells, lots of ECM
  • functions = connect anchors and supports body structures, transport. provides structural and metabolic support
  • where = bone, tendons, blood, fat
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20
Q

What is the ECM made up of?

A
  • fibers in a protein
  • polysaccharide matrix
  • cells (fibroblasts)
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21
Q

What determines the properties of the connective tissue?

A

The composition of the ECM

ex: if calcified, forms bone or teeth
ex2: specialized forms comprise tendons, cartilage

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22
Q

What is the matrix of connective tissue composed of?

A
  • glycoproteins
  • fibrous proteins
  • glycosoaminoglycans
  • collagen (just blood cells)
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23
Q

The MUSCLE tissue

  • characteristics :
  • functions :
  • where
A
  • characteristics = long fiberlike cells
  • functions = contracts and generates force
  • where = heart, skeletal muscle, surrounding hollow organ (bladder, uterus)
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24
Q

The NERVOUS tissue

  • characteristics :
  • functions :
  • where
A
  • characteristics = cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses
  • functions = initiate and transmit electrical impulses
  • where = brain, spinal cord, nerves
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25
Q

Different tissues work together for an organ to function, what is an example?

A

The stomach, composed of smooth muscle, nervous tissue, loose connective tissue, epithelium, connective tissue

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26
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. The body adjusts variables to maintain a “set point” in an acceptable or normal range

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27
Q

What are the variables regulated in homeostasis?

A 
Temperature 
pH
ion concentrations
oxygen 
CO2
water
blood glucose
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28
Q

What is the chosen source used by our cells?

A

Glucose

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29
Q

What are the components of homeostatic mechanism?

A
  • sensor : detects and reacts to changes
  • integrating/ control center : analyzes info
    = hypothalamus
  • effector mechanism : brings about the change to return to set point
  • feedback : process of info about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator
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30
Q

Negative feedback

A

Response opposes or removes the original stimulus, which in turn stops the response loop

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31
Q

Positive feedback

A

Response reinforces the stimulus rather than decreasing or removing it. Destabilises the system until some intervention or event outside the loop stops the response.

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32
Q

Which feedback is most common?

A

negative

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33
Q

Which feedback is stimulatory, disrupts homeostasis, reinforces the change?

A

positive

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34
Q

Which feedback is inhibitory, resets physiological variables, maintains homeostasis?

A

negative

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35
Q

Example of positive feedback

A

Cervical stretch stimulates oxytocin release which causes uterine contraction and pushes baby against cervix

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36
Q

What are the 3 levels of homeostatic control?

A
  • intracellular
  • intrinsic
  • extrinsic
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37
Q

-

A
  • operates within cells

- genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes

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38
Q

-

A

intrinsic=autoregulation

  • regulation within tissues or organs
  • may involve chemical signals
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39
Q

-

A
  • regulation from organ to organ
  • may involve nerve signals
  • may involve endocrine signals (hormones)
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40
Q

Examples of intrinsic, extrinsic, intracellular regulation

A

extrinsic: nervous system, endocrine system
intracellular: pancreas produces lipase
intrinsic : kidney regulates blood flow

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41
Q

The cells in loose connective tissue are

A
  • mast cells
  • macrophages
  • fibroblasts (secrete matrix proteins)
    = main cell type
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42
Q

The fibres in the loose connective tissue are

A
  • elastic

- collagen

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43
Q

What is ground substance?

A

Is the matrix of loose connective tissue

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44
Q

What are the 3 types of connective tissue?

A
  • connective tissue proper (dense and loose)
  • fluid (blood and lymph)
  • supporting (bone and cartilage)
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45
Q

The dense connective tissue proper can be :

A

Irregular or regular

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46
Q

The loose connective tissue proper can be :

A
  • areolar
  • reticular
  • adipose
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47
Q

What do dense connective tissues provide?

What is the dominent fibre?

A

Strength and flexibility
ex: tendons, ligaments
Dominant fiber = collagen

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48
Q

__ attach skeletal muscle to bones

A

Tendons

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49
Q

__ connect one bone to another

A

Ligaments

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50
Q

What are the most abundant of the tissue types?

A

Connective tissues

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51
Q

Loose connective tissues are __

A

elastic tissues that underlie skin and provide support for small glands

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52
Q

Tendons and ligaments are

A

dense connective tissues ,

have density packed collagen fibres

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53
Q

Adipose connective tissue is composed of __ & __ fat

A

White

Brown

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54
Q

What is the difference between white and brown fat?

A

White fat = single lipid droplet

Brown fat = multiple lipid droplets

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55
Q

The blood is also a connective tissue what is it made up of?

A
  • plasma matrix

- free blood cells (red & white & platelets)

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56
Q

Adipocyte =

A

Fat cell

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57
Q

What are the 2 supporting tissues?

A
  • cartilage

- bone

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58
Q

Cartilage

A
  • light, solid and flexible
  • trachea and ears
  • lack of blood supply
  • can’t be generated quickly when damaged
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59
Q

Bone

A
  • Calcified ECM (calcium salts)
  • Rigid, strong
  • can heal as opposed to cartilage
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60
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle tissues?

A
  • cardiac (in heart)
  • smooth (internal organs)
  • skeletal (attach to bones)
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61
Q

Characteristic of muscle tissue

A
  • contractile
  • signal conduction
  • produces force and movement
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62
Q

Characteristics of skeletal muscle

A
  • multiple nucleated cells
  • long, linear fibers
  • striations
63
Q

Characteristics of cardiac muscle

A
  • striated
  • branched fibres
  • smaller fibres
  • unicleated
  • intercalated disks (junction between cells)
64
Q

Characteristics of smooth muscle

A
  • no striations
  • spindle shapes
  • small fibres
65
Q

_ types of cells in nervous tissues :

A

2

  • Glial
  • Neurons
66
Q

Neurons or nerve cells

A
  • carry information in the form of chemical and electrical signals from one part of the body to another
  • are excitable
  • in brain, spinal cord
67
Q

Glial cells or neuroglia

A
  • are the support cells for neurons
68
Q

Out of the 4 tissue types, which one has an extensive matrix?

A

CONNECTIVE

69
Q

Unique feature of epithelial tissue

A

No direct blood supply

70
Q

Unique feature of connective tissue

A

Cartilage has no blood supply

71
Q

Unique feature of muscle tissue

A

Able to generate electrical signals, force, movement

72
Q

Unique feature of nerve tissue

A

Able to generate electrical signals

73
Q

How do cells gain functional anatomy ?

A

Differentiation

Occurs thanks to growth factors or other chemical signals

74
Q

The very earliest cells in the life of a human being are said to be __. In the embryo cells aren’t differentiated yet.

A

TOTIPOTENT

75
Q

Totipotent cells can differentiate into

A

any and all types of specialized cells

76
Q

Totipotent cells begin to specialise at day 4 into __ cells

A

PLURIPOTENT

- can develop into many cell types but not all

77
Q

Stages of maturation

A

Totipotent
Pluripotent
Stem cells
Multipotent

78
Q

stem cells =

A
  • cells that are able to reproduce themselves and differentiate into specialized cells
  • they are undifferentiated cells
  • are highly proliferative
  • can replace totipotent and pluripotent cells
79
Q

Where are most stem cells plentiful in?

80
Q

Are stem cells found in adults?

A

Yes in bone marrow, liver, skin, hair

81
Q

___ therapy is being developed to treat diseases and injuries such as spinal coord injury, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s

82
Q

What is the danger of therapeutic cloning?

A

Once these cells are stimulated, they can lead to cancer

83
Q

What is therapeutic cloning?

A
  • harvest somatic cell
  • place in nucleus of the somatic cell in enucleated oocyte
  • mature to blastocysts
  • get cells to differentiate
  • transplant back to patient
84
Q

Where to obtain stem cells for research & treatments?

A
  • adult bone marrow
  • testis
  • induced pluripotent cells
85
Q

Eukaryotic cells 4 major structure

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cytoplasm
  • nucleus
  • organelles (mitochondria, Golgi, ER)
86
Q

Cells contain 2 membranes

A
  • plasma membranes - encloses the cell

- organelle membrane - sacs and canals made of the same material as the plasma membrane that enclose organelles

87
Q

Function of membranes

A
  • controls transport in and out
  • structural support
  • regulates exchange and communication
    (transmembrane receptors)
  • site for binding of enzymes
  • anchor for ECM or cytoskeleton
88
Q

Which markers does a cell have? (are glycoproteins)

A
  • self markers (MHC) = unique to an individual

- non-self markers = molecules on surface of foreign cells

89
Q

Our immune system can attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare our own normal cells. This is called :

A

self-tolerance

90
Q

What are the 2 types of self-markers?

A

MHC1 : on all cells

MHC2: on antigen presenting cells

91
Q

What is the function of proteins in the cell membrane ?

A
  • function as protein channels
  • control transport of water soluble molecules
    (potassium, sodium)
92
Q

The initial response to cellular dehydration is the release of :

A

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

93
Q

What does ADH act on?

A

the distal tubule of the kidney

94
Q

What does ADH signal?

A

To increase water permeability

95
Q

What is ADH or vasopressin?

A

A posterior pituitary hormone that regulates water reabsorption in the kidney

96
Q

Function of membrane receptors

A
  • trigger an intracellular singling casket when bound by a ligand, this alters intracellular activities
97
Q

What activates a G protein, thus shuttling the alpha subunit to adenylyl cyclase?

A

An extracellular messenger

98
Q

What is the function of proteins in the cell membranes?

A

binds other integral membrane proteins to from cell-cell connections or binds ECM to give structure to tissus

99
Q

What are integral proteins ?

an example is

A

= proteins tightly bound to the membrane, can be removed by disrupting its membrane structure with detergents or harsh methods

integrin is an example

100
Q

Transmembrane proteins are __ tightly bound to the phospholipid bilayer

A

integral proteins

101
Q

what are integrins?

A
  • membrane - spanning proteins that link the cytoskeleton to ecm proteins.
  • heterodimer made of an alpha and beta subunit
102
Q

Function of integrins

A
  • cell adhesion

- join cell-cell or cell-ECM

103
Q

What is the watery intracellular fluid in cytoplasm called?

104
Q

2 major groups of organelles

A
  • membranous

- non membranous

105
Q

Membranous organelles

A

have sacs or canals made of cell membranes

golgi, er, plasma membrane, lysosome, proteosome

106
Q

Non membranous organelles

A

made of microscopic filaments, non membranous materials

cytoskeleton, ribosomes, cilia, flagella, nucleolus

107
Q

Function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

What moves through its canals?

A
  • circulates through the cell for protein transport to get from nucleus to cytoplasm to the cell surface for release
  • proteins
108
Q

What is the ER made of?

A

canals with membranous walls

It extends from nucleus to the plasma membrane

109
Q

What are the 2 types of ER?

A
  • rough ER

- smooth ER

110
Q

What is the difference between rough & smooth ER?

A

rough : ribosomes (they synthesize proteins), it functions in protein synthesis and intracellular transportation , transports protein to golgi

smooth : NO ribosomes, synthesises certain lipids and carbs, removes and stores calcium

111
Q

Which ER is important for muscle contraction and hormone production?

A

Smooth ER, because removes and stores calcium

112
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • non membranous
  • made of 2 subunits : large and small
  • subunits are composed of ribosomal RNA
113
Q

What are the free ribosomes?

A
  • make proteins for cell’s domestic use
114
Q

What are the bound ribosomes?

A

Those attached to RER, make protein for export

115
Q

What are polyribosomes?

A

Groups of working ribosomes

116
Q

Which ER synthesises certain lipids and carbohydrates?

117
Q

Do ribosomes have membranes?

118
Q

Does the Golgi have a membrane?

A

YES - it is a membranous organelle, consists of cistern stacked on one another, located near the nucleus

119
Q

Function of the golgi?

A
  • processes & packages protein molecules from ER

- enzymes are present in the golgi

120
Q

What is the route of protein transportation?

A
  • made on ribosomes on ER
  • travel through ER
  • leave ER in vesicle fuse with golgi
  • vesicle fuses with plasma membrane for release outside the cell
121
Q

What are lysosomes made of?

A

microscopic membranous sacs

122
Q

Function of lysosomes

A

cell digestive / recycling system performed by enzymes

they break down proteins, food molecules, food particles, old organelles

123
Q

Disease caused by failure to produce enzyme needed to break down lipids-gangliosides?

124
Q

Proteasome

A

protein complexes which degrade damaged proteins by proteolysis

125
Q

How are proteins broken down?

A
  • chain of UBIQUITIN molecules
  • unfold it as it enters the proteasome
  • break apart peptide bonds
  • short peptide chains exit the other end of proteasome
126
Q

In __ disease, proteasome system fails.

A

PARKINSON

- improperly folded proteins => kill nerve cells in the brain that regulate muscle tension

127
Q

What are mitochondria composed of

A
  • inner and outer membrane
  • fluid separates membranes
  • enzymes attached to membranes
  • single circular DNA
128
Q

Function of mitochondria

A
  • “power plants” of cells,
  • mitochondrial enzymes catalyse oxidation reactions that provide 95% of cell’s energy supply
    (5% from glycolysis)
129
Q

The DNA of the mitochondria is inherited from

A

the mother

involved in parkinson, alzheimer, diabetes inheritance

130
Q

Nucleus

A
  • nuclear envelope with nuclear pores that allow proteins (like TF in and out)
  • nucleoplasm
131
Q

Multinucleated cells

A

usually associate with cancerous cells (failure of cytokinesis)
or skeletal

132
Q

How is the DNA of the nucleus?

A
  • heterochromatin : silent genes, tightly compacted

- euchromatin : active sites of gene expression/transcription, open

133
Q

What determines phenotype

A

gene transcription

134
Q

What do all of our cells have in common?

A

DNA! but expression of those genes gives our phenotype

135
Q

DNA wraps around __, forms __

A

histone proteins ; nucleosomes

136
Q

What provides support, allows movement of cells, proteins and organelles, and serves a critical function in chromatin movement and mechanisms?

A

CYTOSKLETON

137
Q

microfilaments

A

smallest cell fibres

they can slide past each other (causes shortening of the cell-muscle contraction)

138
Q

Sliding filament model

A
  • myosin head bends and binds actin filaments

- myosin head pulls and slides actin

139
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

twisted protein strands
THICKER than microfilaments
from SUPPORTING framework

140
Q

Microtubules

A 
tiny 
HOLLOW tubes 
thickest of the cell fibres 
made of protein subunits arranged in spiral 
MOVE things arrant the cell
141
Q

Centrosome

A
  • area of cytoplasm
  • near nucleus
  • coordinates BUILDING & BREAKING of microtubules in the cell
  • role in cell division
142
Q

Examples of cytoskeleton-cell extensions

A
  • microvilli (from microfilaments)

- cilia & flagella (from microtubules)

143
Q

microvilli

A
  • in epithelial cells that line intestines (there absorption is important)
  • increase the surface area
144
Q

cilia & flagella

A
  • have cylinders made of microtubules at their core
145
Q

Difference btwn cilia and flagella

A
  • cilia : shorter and more numerous than flagella

- flagella found only on human sperm cells

146
Q

What holds cells together?

A
  • fibrous nets
    or
  • direct connections
147
Q

3 types of direct cell connections

A
  • gap-junctions
  • tight-junctions
  • anchoring junctions
148
Q

GAP junctions

A
  • direct cytoplasmic connection
  • create communication bridges (connexins)
  • low electrical resistance, allow electrical impulses to spread from one cardiac cell to the next
149
Q

TIGHT junctions

A
  • prevent movement of material between cells
  • cells partly fuse
    ex: intestinal tract, cells regulate when enters and leaves
150
Q

ANCHORING junctions

A
  • cells attach to each other, or to ecm
  • physical barrier
    ex: belt desmosome, spot desmosome
151
Q

Desmosomes

A

= physical connection thanks to velcro fibres connects cells

  • belt : encircle entire cell like a collar
  • spot : connects adjacent membranes, “spot welds” at various points
152
Q

Desmosome are present in

A

skin cells

153
Q

Which organ uses gap junctions?

A

heart : nerve impulse can travel to and stimulate heart to contract all at once
Within intercalated discs : desmosomes and gap junctions

154
Q

difference between desmosome and gap junction

A

desmosome: physically hold together

gap junction : functionally hold together

Mammalian Physiology (6 decks)

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