Shiner, R.L., Buss, K.A., McClowry, S.G., Putnam, S.P., Saudino, K.J., & Zentner, M. (2012). What is Temperament Now? Assessing Progress in Temperamental Research on the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of Goldsmith et al. (1987)

Question 1

Broadly speaking, what is the Shiner article “What is Temperament Now” about?

Answer 1

It is a review of the research on temperament done since the classic article “What is Temperament” of 1987.

Question 2

What is the story behind the classic 1987 article, “What is temperament”?

Answer 2

At the 1985 meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, H. Hill Goldsmith convened a roundtable conversation among leading temperament researchers to address foundational questions about the nature of temperament. Following the discussion, many of the panelists summarized the discussion in a now-classic 1987 article.

Question 3

The classic 1987 article “What is Temperament” offered different definitions, but at the end of the article they were summarised in a definition that attempted to integrate the four approaches. How?

Answer 3

Temperament consists of relatively consistent, basic dispositions inherent in the person that underlie and modulate the expression of activity, reactivity, emotionality, and sociability. Major elements of temperament are present early in life, and those elements are likely to be strongly influenced by biological factors. As development proceeds, the expression of temperament increasingly becomes more influenced by experience and context.

Question 4

“Temperament consists of relatively consistent, basic dispositions inherent in the person that underlie and modulate the expression of activity, reactivity, emotionality, and sociability. Major elements of temperament are present early in life, and those elements are likely to be strongly influenced by biological factors. As development proceeds, the expression of temperament increasingly becomes more influenced by experience and context. “

New findings and approaches have offered new perspectives on many of these guiding assumptions. Which?

Answer 4

1. Not all temperament traits are stable early in life.
2. Most temperament researchers would agree that the particular traits included in the definition do constitute individual differences, but the list leaves out dimensions of attention and self-regulation, which have turned out to be important individual differences.
3. The original definition’s dichotomy between biological and environmental influences does not hold under scrutiny.

Question 5

The 1987 definition of temperament does not account for all what we now know. We now know that not all temperament traits are stable early in life. Why?

Answer 5

Perhaps because new temperamental systems that control or inhibit the more reactive aspects of temperament emerge only later in infancy; as these control systems come on-line, they may change the expression and stability of the more reactive traits.

Question 6

The 1987 definition of temperament does not account for all what we now know. The definition fails to mention some traits we know there are individual differences in. Which?

Answer 6

Dimensions of attention and self-control emerge inbasic form in infancy, and there are important individual differences in how these work. These are cognitive systems, but we now know that they modulate affective processes.

Question 7

The 1987 definition of temperament does not account for all what we now know. Why does Shiner critisize the dichotomy between biological and environmental influences on temperament?

Answer 7

Because the field’s understanding of these factors has become much more complex. We know that intrauterine environment influences the expression of each child’s genetic material, and the experience continues to shape gene expression after birth.

Question 8

Shiner critisizes the dichotomy between biological and environmental influences. How does she propose we view the way these two influences act on temperament?

Answer 8

She argues it should no longer be viewed as biologically derived at birht and later shaped by experience; rather, it should be viewed as a result of biological and environmental factors working together throughout development.

Question 9

Shiner proposes a new definition of temperament to account for new findings. Use this definition.

Answer 9

Temperament traits are early emerging basic dispositions in the domains of activity, affectivity, attention and self-regulation, and these dispositions are the product of complex interactions among genetic, biological and environmental factors across time.

Question 10

The research on temperament is unified?

Answer 10

Not exactly. There are four “traditions”.

Question 11

The research on temperament has been divided into four approaches. Which?

Answer 11

1. The structure of temperament and importance of self-regulatory traits (Rothbart)
2. Goodness of fit and the application of temperament concepts (Chess and Thomas)
3. The interplay of genetic and environmental factors in development (Buss and Plomin)
4. the significance of the emotional nature of temperament (Goldsmith)

Question 12

What was the starting point for the research done within the “goodness of fit and the application of temperament concepts” approach? (Chess and Thomas)

Answer 12

Based a conent analysis of interviews with parents of infants, Chess and Thomas (1984) developed an influential list of nine temperament traits. They asserted that many children fall into three types based on their combination of traits. Their goodness of fit concept describes the consonance between a child’s temperament and the demands, expectations, and opportunities of the environment. Interventions included modifying the environment to better fit the temperament.

Question 13

What knowledge has been gained within the “goodness of fit and the application of temperament concepts” approach? (Chess and Thomas)

Answer 13

The original nine temperament traits are not empirically distinct. The topology, however, has held up - although newer work label children differently. Researchers have critisized the goodness of fit interventions for not preparing children for the less flexible nature of society, and newer research has a stronger emphasis on self-regulation as a scaffold for more challenging temperaments.

Question 14

What was the starting point for the research done within the “interplay of genetic and environmental factors in development” approach? (Buss and Plomin)

Answer 14

Buss and Plomin looked at temperament across three dimensions that are enduring across age and situation, and are genetically influenced.

Question 15

What knowledge has been gained within the “interplay of genetic and environmental factors in development” approach? (Buss and Plomin)

Answer 15

Initially, the research done within this approach was mostly concerned with whether or not temperament dimensions were genetically influenced. Newer research has looked at cross-situational and contextual effects, method effects, and links between temperament and developmental outcomes. This approach has been mostly relevant to basic science.

Question 16

What was the starting point for the research done within the “significance of the emotional nature of temperament” approach? (Goldsmith)

Answer 16

Goldsmith’s approach considers individual differences in natural tendencies to experience and express emotional behavior to be a defining feature of temperament. Goldsmith focuses on temperament dimensions that correspond to discrete emotions (e.g., anger vs. fear) in contrast to those approaches that only consider emotionality as a single dimension. Goldsmith’s approach falls within a larger body of research on affective style.

Question 17

What knowledge has been gained within “the significance of the emotional nature of temperament” approach? (Goldsmith)

Answer 17

A great deal of study has been done on extreme fearfulness as a risk factor for social anxiety, often using parameters like rise, time, peak, intesity and so on. The author of this section attributes the surge in research examining links between individual differences in affective behavior and psychobiological reactivity to this approach.

Question 18

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Which?

Answer 18

1. How is temperament structured?
2. What is the relation between temperament and personality traits?
3. How do temperament traits and context interact to predict behavior in specific situations?
4. How do temperament and the environment interact to shape developmental outcomes of time?
5. How are changes in temperament related to biological and psychological processes?

Question 19

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Explain question 1. How is temperament structured?

Answer 19

Shiner argues that the study of how temperament has been structured has been hampered by the use of competing models. When comparing models on a set of preschoolers, researchers found that each model added valuable, nonoverlapping information. Shiner suggests future measures of temperament use a combination of all models.

Question 20

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Explain question 2. What is the relation between temperament and personality traits?

Answer 20

Shiner argues that there is no reason to think that temperament and personality are not manifestations of the same basic dimensions. If they were, temperament research could be enhanced by measuring traits more broadly as children get older, Shiner suggests.

Question 21

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Explain question 3. How do temperament traits and context interact to predict behavior in specific situations?

Answer 21

Shiner points to the problem where behaviors considered to relfect an underlying trait show limited cross-situational consistency. This has sometimes been solved by averaging the behavior across situations, but Shiner considers that this may obscure meaningful differences.

Question 22

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Explain question 4. How do temperament and the environment interact to shape developmental outcomes of time?

Answer 22

Several replicable patterns of interactions between temperament and contextual factors have been identified as influencing whether temperament will remain stable or change and whether other adjustment outcomes will be negative or positive. Shiner suggests more genetic studies, and also more studies on the ways that children shape their contexts.

Question 23

In her article, Shiner poses five remaining questions on the nature of temperament. Explain question 5. How are changes in temperament related to biological and psychological processes?

Answer 23

Although we know that temperament is both stable and changing (yes), Shiner points out that we still need to understand the specific biological and psychological processes underlying temperamental discontinuity. The promises of this knowledge for clinical psychology is great.

Question 24

Shiner argues that there is no reason to think that temperament and personality are not manifestations of the same basic dimensions. What is the alternative hypothesis?

Answer 24

A common metaphor for thinking about personality development has been that young children display genetically influenced temperament traits and that life experiences “layer” personality traits onto the early biological temperament.

Question 25

Shortly summarise our knowledge of temperament.

Answer 25

There are now well-documented connections between temperament and a wide variety of critical life outcomes - relationships, academic achievement, health, and psychopathology. Temperament clearly has an impact on the course of individual’s lives. That something measured so early can have a significant impact is astonishing.