Sexual Development and Diversity (Exam 2) Flashcards
what biologically determines sex?
the size of an individual’s gamete size - large gametes (eggs) are female and small gametes (sperm) are male
what are gametes?
sex cells
what are the APA guidelines of sex?
refers to a person’s biological status typically categorized as male, female, or intersex indicated by sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, and external genitalia
what is gender?
a psychosocial term that encompasses the psychological, cultural, and social characteristics we ascribe to men and women (culturally dependent)
what are the APA guidelines of gender?
the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex
what is gender-normative?
behavior that is compatible with cultural expectations
what is gender non-conforming?
behaviors that are viewed as incompatible with cultural expectations
what is a chromosome?
long tightly packed DNA sequence
true or false: almost every cell in the human body has 21 pairs of chromosomes
false: 23 pairs
which human cells do NOT contain pairs of chromosomes?
egg and sperm cells (only 23 each, not in pairs)
how many chromosomes are inherited from the mother and the father?
one chromosome of each pair from both
how many pairs of chromosomes in humans are identical?
22 pairs
which set pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes that differ for males and females?
the 23rd set
what are the identical pairs of chromosomes known as and what do they determine?
autosomes: determine phenotypes such as eye color, height, looks, etc.
true or false: XX is male and XY is female
false (XX is female and XY is male)
one sex chromosome is inherited from the mother via – and is always an –
via ovum and is always an X
one of the sex chromosomes is inherited from the father via – and is –
via sperm and is an X or Y
which sex determines the sex of offspring and why?
males determine because their sperm can carry an X or Y to the females egg which is ALWAYS an X
how many genes do X chromosomes usually have and what do they determine?
about 900 - 1400 genes which determine personality, attributes, etc.
how many genes do Y chromosomes usually have and what do they do?
about 70 - 400 genes with info mostly in male sexual differentiation
which chromosomes (X or Y) are the largest and have the most genetic information?
X chromosomes
at conception, humans consist of one cell which is?
a fertilized egg
what determines whether cells develop into male or female embryo?
the presence or absence of a Y chromosome
which sex-determining gene located on the Y chromosome is the initial switch that causes differentiation in the male direction?
the sex-determining region Y (SRY)
true or false: X-carrying sperm and Y-carrying sperm are produced in roughly the same quantity
true
what is the ratio of male to female fertilized eggs?
160:100
what is the ratio of male to female live births?
105:100
why are there many more male fertilized eggs in comparison to female?
Y chromosomes are smaller and swim faster which can fertilize more eggs while X chromosomes are larger and slower
what is the ratio of male to female teenagers?
100:100
why are there fewer male live births than male fertilized eggs?
males are harder to develop as there are more steps and it is more complex - there are many more ways for it to go wrong
what are the two reasons there are more male miscarriages?
- there are more places for male development to go wrong
- with recessive genetic defects on the X chromosome, a male (XY) having only one X is more likely to express that defect
why are there fewer male teenagers than male live births
they are more likely to die off later in life as they are risk takers
true or false: at 5 weeks male and female internal sex organs are differentiated
false (undifferentiated)
at 5 weeks both XX and XY embryos have what INTERNAL genitalia?(2)
a pair of undifferentiated gonads and two sets of ducts: mullerian and wolffian
at 5 weeks both XX and XY have what EXTERNAL genitalia? (3)
genital tubercle, genital folds, genital swelling
at what week of development do undifferentiated gonads develop into ovaries?
week 7
if the Y chromosome is present at 7 weeks it will express the SRY and result in the production of what?
the testis-determining factor which induces the differentiation of gonads into testes
after the differentiation of gonads into ovaries and testes they begin to produce what which do what?
sex hormones which lead to the development of remaining internal and external genitalia
what sex hormones do testes produce?
androgens (testosterone is one) and a small amount of estrogen and progesterone
what sex hormones do ovaries produce?
estrogen and progesterone and a small amount of testosterone
what other part of the human body produces hormones?
adrenal glands
for female-typical development of internal sex organs which ducts degenerate?
wolffian ducts
for female-typical development which ducts develop into the internal sex organs?
mullerian ducts
what do mullerian ducts develop into for female development? (3)
fallopian tubes, uterus, upper part of vagina
for male-typical development of internal organs which ducts degenerate?
mullerian ducts
for male-typical development which ducts develop into the internal genitalia?
wolffian ducts
what do wolffian ducts develop into in male development? (3)
vas deferens, seminal vesicle, epididymis, ejaculatory ducts
what has to happen in male-typical development for the mullerian ducts to degenerate?
testes must secrete the anti-mullerian hormone (AMH)
in female-typical development what do the external sex organs develop into?
1. genital tubercle –> ?
2. genital folds –> ?
3. genital swelling –> ?
- genital tubercle –> clitoris
- genital folds –> inner labia
- genital swelling –> outer labia
in male-typical development what do the external sex organs develop into?
1. genital tubercle –> ?
2. genital folds –> ?
3. genital swelling –> ?
- genital tubercle –> glans penis
- genital folds –> shaft of the penis
- genital swelling –> scrotum
at around 10 weeks what change occurs to the ovaries and testes?
move down to the upper pelvis
in females the ovaries stay in the upper pelvis until what event and where do they move?
Until birth then they descend in the pelvis and remain on either side of the uterus
at what point in development do the testicles descend into the pelvis?
6-7 months
when do the testicles move down into the scrotum?
shortly before birth
as each testicle enters the scrotum what does it bring with it?
the vas deferens, blood vessels, and nerves
what percent of newborn males have one or both testes undescended?
~ 2%
why is it important for testes to be descended?
they need to be external to be cool enough for sperm production
what does the presence or absence of T during the “critical period” do?
masculinize/demasculinize the brain
what are organizational effects?
hormonal influences during critical periods that cause permanent effects
what are activational effects?
behavioral responses in adulthood from hormones that are reversible
true or false: the development of internal and external sexual organs in the womb is an organizational effect
true
true or false: male puberty (T burst) and female puberty (E burst) and starting menstruation are activational effects
false - they are organizational effects because they are permanent changes
true or false: menstrual changes and mood fluctuations are activational effects
true - they are reversible as they can be blocked with blockers
from childhood to puberty are hormonal influences organizational or activational?
organizational
in adulthood are hormone influences organizational or activational?
activational
what hormone is the main player in sex drive of males and females?
testosterone
true or false: the loss of testes and ovaries after birth has what effect and what can fix that?
decreases sex drive, taking T can help both
in the rat experiment what were the results on the brain of a rat who’s testes were removed before birth?
displayed female-typical behavior even WITH T administered
differentiation causes cells and neural circuits of the — to differentiate between males and females
hypothalamus (H)
at puberty, the female hypothalamus directs what?
a cyclical secretion of sex hormones - menstrual cycle
the male hypothalamus directs what?
a relatively constant production of sex hormones
true or false: male and female brains are more similar than they are different
true
early hormonal influences in the brain cause what differences in males and females?
some differences in brain organization
how many regions of the brain are larger in females than in males?
about 10
how many regions of the brain are larger in males than females?
about 14
what brain structure can be used to identify sex with a 93% accuracy?
cerebral cortex
true or false: depression is more prevalent in males
false - it is more common in females
true or false: autism is more prevalent in males
true
what might explain the sex differences in mental disorders?
sex differences in connections within brain and in metabolism of neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin)
what percent of humans develop in the binary?
98%
what does the term sex refer to?
the biological characteristics of male/female (internal/external genitalia, chromosomes, etc.)
what does the term gender refer to?
the cultural/social ascribed to a person’s biological sex
what does gender identity refer to?
one’s core sense of being male/female, both or neither
true or false: for sex chromosome anomalies when there is no Y, most people identify as female
true
what are the chromosomes of Turner’s syndrome?
X0
Turner’s syndrome:
1. how many chromosomes?
2. how many conceptions vs. live births and why?
3. fertile or infertile?
4. physical and mental characteristics?
5. inherited or anomaly?
- only 45 chromosomes - ONE sex chromosome (X)
- 1/5,000 conceptions vs. 1/3,000 live births - 2,000 miscarried because the mother’s body can feel a defect
- infertile, no functional ovaries
- short, broad-chested, wide neck, widely spaced nipples, average IQ BUT low spacial ability
- anomaly
what is the usual treatment of a person with Turner’s syndrome?
treated with growth hormones early - to feminize, they are treated with estrogen at puberty
what are the chromosomes of Klinefelter Syndrome?
XXY, XXXY
what do those with Klinefelter Syndrome identify as usually?
male
Klinefelter Syndrome:
1. how many chromosomes usually?
2. how many live births?
3. fertile or infertile? Why?
4. physical characteristics?
- 47 or more rarely 48 or 49
- 1/600 live births
- usually sterile - delayed or absent puberty, low T, small testicles
- Y chromosome masculinizes the body but sometimes feminized appearance (breast development)
with Klinefelter Syndrome why do people sometimes have a feminized appearence?
their testes have lower functioning and therefore produce little T - the natural small amounts of Estrogen play a larger role
what are the three ways a person can get Klinefelter Syndrome?
- the female accidentally contributes 2 X’s
- the female contributes X and male contributes X and Y
- VERY RARE both occur at the same time
how do those with XYY Syndrome usually identify?
male
how does XYY Syndrome occur?
the male sperm carries 2 Y’s
XYY Syndrome:
1. how many chromosomes?
2. how many live births?
3. fertile or infertile?
4. physical and mental characteristics?
- usually 47
- 1/1,000 live births
- lower sperm quality but usually fertile
- typical male features, some very tall (6’5”), low IQ, autism-related symptoms common
Many of those in prison have XYY Syndrome, why might this be?
they are bad criminals as a result of their mental abilities AND they physically stand out
what chromosomes do those with Triple X Syndrome?
XXX
how do those with Triple X Syndrome usually identify?
female
Triple X Syndrome:
1. how many chromosomes?
2. how many live births
3. fertile or infertile?
4. physical and mental characteristics?
- 47
- 1/1,000 live births
- usually fertile
- taller than average, wide-set eyes, dental problems, may have learning disabilities, delayed speech, lower IQ
what are the 4 most common sex chromosome anolamies?
Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, Triple X, XYY Syndrome
whare are the 4 most common intersex conditions disorders?
Ovotesticular Disorder, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS), Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH), 5-alpa-reductase Deficiency
what percent of humans develop on a nonbinary path?
1.7%
what is Ovotesticular Disorder?
a person who has both ovarian and testicular tissue (maybe one ovary and one teste) - either on different sides of body or in gonads that contain mixtures
those called “hermaphrodites” actually have which disorder?
ovotesticular disorder
are those with ovotesticular disorder usually fertile or infertile?
infertile
what is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)?
in either XX or XY gene mutation leads to impaired steroid metabolism, adrenal glands secrete insufficient amount of steroids that control salt and water balance and they secrete high levels of T
true or false: CAH occurs in 1/13,000
true
what are the effects of CAH on XX vs. XY?
XX: gonads become ovaries, produce estrogen, develop internal genitalia, when external genitalia develop the adrenal glands secrete high levels of T which masculinize genitals
XY: no change in genitals or development but adrenal gland function MUST still be treated
what is the treatment for CAH?
they are given glucocorticoids to stabilize the adrenal glands - treatment for life
true or false: AIS occurs in 1/10,000 individuals
false - 1/13,000
what chromosomes do those with AIS have?
XY
how is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome inherited?
X-linked recessive gene
what is AIS?
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome - malfunctioning T receptor, the body can’t read T so it is produced but not used therefore they don’t develop external male genitalia, testes remain inside the body, no internal female genitalia (anti-Mullerian hormone) but external defaults to a shallow vagina
what happens to those with AIS at puberty?
breasts and feminine body develop because of adrenal androgen which takes a larger role because T doesn’t work
what are common characteristics of those with AIS?
tall, very attractive, very nice skin, infertile
how is AIS usually identified?
when there is a fail to menstruate
true or false: those with AIS usually keep their internal testes
false - they are usually removed as a cancer risk
what is 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency?
deficiency of enzyme 5-alpha reductase (which converts T into dihydrotestosterone) which allows for the production of external genitalia in the womb –> this causes incomplete masculinization (internal normal) so externally female
what chromosomes do those with 5-alpha reductase deficiency have?
XY genotype
where was 5-alpha reductase deficiency first studied?
early 1970’s in Dominical Republic because the genetic mutation was high and passed from mom
what occurs at puberty to those who have 5-alpha reductase deficiency?
the external male genitalia is now influenced by T which increases muscle mass, growth of a penis and scrotum, testes descend, voice deepens
because those with 5ARD don’t have dihydroT what DOESN’T occur?
no prostate growth, facial hair growth, recession of hairline, or acne
true or false: those with 5ARD develop identical external genitalia to males
false- the urethra is at the base of the penis
what is gender dysphoria?
individuals who experience DISTRESS from the incongruence between their experienced/expressed gender and their assigned gender (disorder)
what are the signs that a child (4+) has gender dysphoria? (5)
- strong desire to be or insistence that they are some alternate gender
- wearing alternate gender-typical clothing
- cross-sex roles in fantasies
- desire to participate in stereotypical games or past times of other gender
- strong preference for alternate-gender playmates
what are signs in adolescents and adults of having gender dysphoria? (4)
- stated desire to be alternate gender
- frequent passing as alternate gender
- desire to live or be treated as alternate gender
- conviction that they have typical feelings of alternate gender
true or false: professionals agree the best treatment for gender dysphoria is to adjust the body to the mind
true
what are USUALLY the 4 major elements to transitioning?
- assessment, education, psychotherapy
- hormonal treatment
- experience in the desired gender role
- gender confirmation surgery
what are some results of T blockers and taking estrogen?
- increased skin softness, breast development
- decreased facial and body hair, muscle strength, sex drive, penile erections, prostate growth, sperm count/quality
what are some results of taking T and possibly taking progesterone?
- increased facial and body hair, muscle mass, and clitoris size
- decreases breast size (not gone)
- vaginal atrophy, suppress menstruation, deepens voice
what is a vaginoplasty?
construction of the vagina from a space between the rectum and prostate - tissue from the penis and scrotum used to line the cavity as labia and clitoris (flipped inside out)
what procedures can be done for trans men?
construction of penis with functional urethra and erection with implant, construction of scrotum from labial skin and saline filled testicle implants
true or false: trans men can be given a large dose of T and the clitoris can grow into a small penis
true
what is the theory as to how trans people develop?
the brain in the womb masculinizes or not incongruently with the sex
what is bisexuality?
sexually oriented toward both sexes approximately equally
what is pansexuality?
sexually oriented toward people regardless of sex, gender identity, or expression
what is demisexual?
sexual attraction only experienced after strong emotional connection with someone
what is asexual?
sexual orientation involving a lack of sexual attraction towards others (Aces)
who was the first to say that homosexuality is a normal variant of human sexuality?
Kinsey (1940’s and 50’s)
women are more likely to be LGBTQ than men - what are the percentages?
women: 6.4%
men: 4.9%
women are more likely than men to identify as bisexual - what are the percentages?
women: 4.3%
men: 1.8%
what percent of liberals, conservatives, and moderates identify as LGBTQ?
liberals: 13%
moderates: 4.4%
conservatives: 2.3%
what percent of democrats, independents, republicans identify as LGBTQ?
democrats: 8.8%
independents: 6.5%
republicans: 1.7%
true or false: there are educational differences between those who identify as LGBT and not
false
how was homosexuality described in the DSM I from 1952?
mental disorder, sociopathic personality disturbance
how was homosexuality described in the DSM II from 1968?
Kinsey influenced it to being a sexual deviation or disturbance
how was homosexuality described in the DSM III in 1980?
ego-dynastic homosexuality, is only a disorder if people were gay and unhappy about it
how was homosexuality described in the DSM III R in 1987?
ego-dynastic homosexuality is removed
who was the person who said homosexuality was not a mental disorder and tested psychologists to differentiate gay and straight brains which proved there was no difference?
Evelyn Hooker (1957)
what are the chances that both brothers are gay if they are identical, fraternal, or adoptive?
identical: 52%
fraternal: 22%
adoptive: 11%
what are the chances that both sisters are lesbian if they are identical, fraternal, or adoptive?
identical: 48%
fraternal: 16%
adoptive: 6%
true or false: homosexuality is exclusively genetic
false - there is a genetic component but it is not the only reason
what are the group of genes found that influence sexuality?
Xq28 on X chromosome
what is Epigenetics?
why genes are expressed in some and not in others - in identical twins some switches are on and some off
what is the birth order effect?
gay men are more likely to have more older brothers (not older sisters) than heterosexual men –> later-born brothers from the same mother are more likely to be homosexual
in the birth order effect, each older brother increases the likelihood of being gay by how much?
about 33% meaning that with the normal chance being 3% after one brother that change increases to 4%
what is the maternal immune hypothesis?
after having multiple male children, a woman’s body may react to the testosterone as a foreign body and protect from it by producing anti-male antibodies (may account for 15% of gay males)
what is the finger length study of homosexuality?
typical male-type pattern is a longer ring finger (more testosterone in the womb) and the female pattern is similar ring and index finger length - lesbian women have typical male finger pattern (likely exposed to more androgen prenatally) but no evidence for gay men
what is the theory as to why mammals have same-sex sexual behaviors (not relationships)?
it is a convergent adaptation facilitating the maintenance of social relationships and the diminishing of intrasexual conflicts
true or false: gay men of the past couldn’t pass on their genes
false - the mateships were not all by choice they were forced into marriages and therefore reproduction so their genes could still pass on
what is the Kin Altruism Theory on homosexuality?
homosexuality evolved to channel altruism (selfless concern for others) toward genetic kin rather than towards reproduction
in Samoa what does the third gender (gay men) do?
give their family an evolutionary edge, they are more invested in their nieces and nephews which increases the chance those kids will survive and pass on genes
true or false: homosexuality is likely a combo of evolutionary mechanisms like kin altruism and birth order
true
what are the problems with kin altruism theory?
- why attracted to the same sex?
- why no asexual?
- why would general empathy translate into kin altruism specifically?
what are the empirical problems with kin altruism theory?
- gay men do not invest more (but may not be allowed to)
- they are more likely to be estranged from kin
what is the sexually antagonistic gene hypothesis?
a certain gene present in male bodies the male produces nonheterosexuality, the same gene in female bodies the female has more offspring
what is the theory as to why female sexuality is more fluid than males?
possibly an adaptive response to our polygynous ancestral environment where many women had cowives - it was a chance for peace
how do the sex behaviors of gay males compare to straight?
gay men have many more casual sex partners and experiences than straight men who WOULD if females agreed
how do the sex behaviors of lesbian women compare to those of straight women?
they are similar in casual sex and number of partners
true or false: sexual behavior is sexual orientation typical
false - it is sex typical
true or false: bisexual men and women are stigmatized to being “really gay”
false-ish - lesbian women are stigmatized to being “really straight”
how do paternity certainty concerns affect a man’s reaction to his partners affair?
they are LESS likely to continue the relationship if it is a heterosexual affair rather than a homosexual one
true or false: women are equally likely to not continue a relationship following a hetero or homosexual affair
true
what is femmephobia?
negative reaction to behavior seen as feminine, men are more homophobic towards feminine gay men rather than masculine
how much does femmephobia account for anti-gay behavior?
23%
what are the 4 aspects of anti-gay bias?
- men evince more antigay bias than women
- men who belong to traditionally male coalitions (military, sports teams, police) evince more antigay bias than those who do not
- antigay bias is targeted more at gay men than lesbians
- antigay bias is targeted more at effeminate gay men than masculine gay men
what is the coalitional value theory of antigay bias?
men may have evolved psychological systems to facilitate coalitional formation and regulation which may make them believe that men perceive gay men as possessing lower coalitional value for protection, warfare, etc.
