Sex Discrimination + Reduction

Question 1

What is sex discrimination, and where is this particularly problematic?

Answer 1

Any negative behaviour (including harassment) directed towards any individual because of their sex
- Can be blatant or subtle
Issue mostly in post-graduation. Well documented wage disparities, occupational sex segregation and and gender imbalance

Question 2

What is the gender pay gap in Australia, especially in the public and private sectors? Are there any differences in starting salaries?

Answer 2

Pay gap = 17.3% (FT annual wage)
Public sector (12%)  F ($53k) - 4% gap

Question 3

What does the Australian Sex Discrimination Act (1984) aim to achieve?

Answer 3

A. Promote equality between men and women
B. Eliminate discrim on basis of sex, marital status and pregnancy, and respect to dismissals, family responsibilities.
C. Eliminate sexual harassment at work, in educational institutions, in the provision of goods and service, provision of accommodation and administration of federal programs
- Trying to reduce sexual harassment

Question 4

Where might sexual discrimination affect women in academia, what are the statistics, and what are programmes that can address this gap?

Answer 4

Associate prof/professors in Aus
2003: 19% W, 81% M
2014: 30% W, 70% M
Only at the higher levels where discrepancies are seen

Programmes to address gap:

• Scholarships for women
• Mentoring program for women
• Gender and equity unit

Question 5

Where might sexual discrimination affect women in law firms, what are the statistics, and what are some suggestions that may reduce this discrimination?

Answer 5

50-60% law graduates are women, but women are only 24% of partners (at upper levels) in firms
May be due to the Promotion Criterion: More billable hours, closer on trajectory to partnership
- Working PT –> lower billable hours –> slower trajectory to partnership
- Women systematically disadvantaged by system (maternity leave)

Structural suggestion:

• Promotion Criterion with more equitable system: consider the overall quality of achievement for firms as criterion for advancement to partnership
• Some of the best lawyers work PT - more balanced work life
• Or, could do ratio of billable:working hours.

Question 6

What is the difference between women’s trajectories in lower vs higher managerial positions?

Answer 6

Women in managerial jobs: doesn’t have the same level of trajectory as higher managerial positions

Question 7

What is the Glass Ceiling effect? What is the glass ceiling, exactly?

Answer 7

Sex discrimination at higher levels of management - only 1 in 10 exec are women
- All other things held constant, women receive fewer promotions

Glass ceiling: Solid but invisible barrier which hinder women’s progression to higher managerial positions –> creates wage gap between sexes

Question 8

What did the Karpin report reveal about the glass ceiling effect in Australia?

Answer 8

• Glass ceiling in higher roles has been maintained for a long time, to the detriment of Aus’ performance
• Women have limited success in reaching senior management and executive positions –> Requires ACTION

Question 9

What are three different ways of explaining the glass ceiling effect?

Answer 9

1. Intragroup similarity and prototypicality
2. Sex-role stereotypes
3. Organisation structures

Question 10

How does Intragroup similarity and prototypicality explain the glass ceiling effect?

Answer 10

• Social identity: Inequality in M/F leaders because W are seen by (mainly men) exec’s to be less prototypical of groups they are expected to lead than men.
• Women less likely to be seen to define leaders prototype (because they do not maximise intragroup similarity) –> less likely to be doing the defining
• Lack of similarities between managers and employees –> Less bonding opportunities in informal situations (e.g. drinks at night)
• Women less likely to speak themselves up –> less promotion opportunities

Question 11

How do sex-role stereotypes explain the glass ceiling effect?

Answer 11

Eagly and Karau (2002)
Incongruity between stereotype of women and stereotype of managerial –> 2 forms of prejudice:
A. Less favourable evaluation of potential for women as leaders vs men
B. Less favourable evaluation of female leaders’ actual behaviour
Can be tested using IAT: F/manager vs M/manager
1. W: more caring than assertive/ambitious
2. Low status position
3. Lack of motivation, confidence, aspirations
4. Restricted performance to higher levels –> back to 2. Cycle.

Men fit cultural stereotypes of leadership better than women do –> Men have better access to leadership roles, and face fewer challenges while there.
Stereotype is precursor to glass ceiling, but other factors also contribute

Question 12

According to the sex-role stereotype explanation of the glass ceiling effect, why is it a lose-lose situation for women in leadership roles?

Answer 12

If W’s behaviour confirms gender stereotype –> not seen as proper leader
If W’s behaviour confirms leader stereotype –> not seen as proper woman
Violation of either stereotype (gender/leader) –> negative evaluation of women and their performance

Question 13

How can organisational structures explain the glass ceiling effect?

Answer 13

Organisational barriers exist, such as:

• Sexist wording on performance appraisals (e.g. “intense desire to WIN” = stereotypically male. “intense desire to SUCCEED” = more gender neutral)
• Differences in tasks assigned
• Training opportunities not accessible to women (e.g. after work hours - family commitments)
• Lack of Mentoring relationships

Question 14

What is the glass cliff phenomenon?

Answer 14

Once women have broken through the glass ceiling, their leadership is seen as more precarious than men, because they tend to be appointed:
A. In a time of poor performance
B. When there is a high risk of failure

Question 15

What are two studies that reveal the nature of the glass cliff phenomenon?

Answer 15

Ryan et al. (2015: Glass cliff due to selection bias from gender stereotypes

• “Think crisis - Think women” (better communication skills, able to encourage others, etc.)
• “Think manager - think men” (independence, decisiveness, etc.)

Cook and Glass (2014): Women given less leeway to lead firms out of crisis
–> Ultimate return of male leader understood as all things returning to normal - “Saviour effect”

Both these events confirm stereotypes that women are unsuitable for high office –> strengthened stereotypes are harder to change

Question 16

Summary/Conclusion of Sex Discrim:

Answer 16

1. Organisations need to provide practical career development tools and initiatives addressing existing workplace inequalities to address women’s exclusion from higher levels of management
2. Sex discrim is product of cultural ideas and structural policies that differentially affect men and women, and also decisions to apply/enforce these policies on workers by gender
3. Culture, structure and individual decision - making need to change to eradicate sexual discrimination.

Question 17

What are the benefits of gender diversity in the workplace? (4)

Answer 17

• More sociocultural beliefs
• Higher financial returns
• Richard et al. (2013): Benefit modulated by encouragement of collaboration/cooperation
• – Active encouragement –> higher company perf
• – Active discouragement –> lower company perf
• Benefits moderated by climate of inclusion (Nishii, 2013)
• – Conflicts lower in climates of higher inclusion&raquo_space; lower inclusion
• – Gender diversity doesn’t work if there is no climate of inclusion

Question 18

What policy changes does the Karpin report suggest? (6)

Answer 18

• Voluntary targets (not quotas) agreed by the industry/gov for the number of women in senior levels of management within 5 years
• – Targets: no consequence for not achieving goal (but may take longer to achieve)
• – Quotas: Not met –> action –> “forced”
• Database of suitably qualified women for selection by private sector companies to sit on boards of directors
• Improving target of women for managerial development
• Increased funding in workforce to promote diversity
• Making childcare readily affordable, available, and of good quality
• More time and amount of paid “parental” leave, and making it neutral

Question 19

What is Affirmative Action?

Answer 19

Policies and procedures which attempt to increase the representation of an underrepresented group in education or employment, through the consideration in decision-making of applicant sex, race or other protected group status

Question 20

What is Affirmative Action aimed to achieve/why do we need it?

Answer 20

• Karpin/other policy reforms: limited success, due to ineffective implementation (not enough direct action)
• AAs needed due to persistence of prejudice and discrim
• AA assures diversity of groups, and that selection procedures are fair

Question 21

What are the different types of AA plans?

Answer 21

Soft:
Type I: Improving improvement and hiring of minorities/females - organise set up recruitment programmes at university
Type II: Hiring and promoting minorities/female applicants in pool of equally qualified applicants
Hard: (less supported than soft plans)
Type III: Hiring and promoting minorities/female applicants who meet minimum qualification, even if there are majority members with better qualifications
Type IV: Actively searching for minority/female applicants until one who meets qualification for position

Question 22

What workplace changes can be put into place? (7)

Answer 22

• Changing/neutralising promotion criteria language (gender-neutral terms - job/perf-related)
• Mentoring women on negotiating salaries, financial security and superannuation
• Educating employers on family-friendly and effective flexible work practices (e.g. having easily accessible resources)
• Ensuring workplace cultures are as gender-neutral as possible (eg. language)
• Increase number of senior female role models (increase typicality)
• Increase availability of quality part-time work (esp at senior levels)
• Providing opportunities to attend senior management workshops

Question 23

What are three examples of workplace programmes that have been put into place to help reduce sex discrimination against women?

Answer 23

Chief Exec Women leaders’ Programme
Aim: To inspire women to take on more leadership roles (senior) and enhance their career and personal growth opportunities - progressive
USyd Brown and Thompson Equity scholarships:
Aim: Provide funding for researchers who are primary caregivers/women.

Question 24

What is the SPAM programme, what are its aims and what was involved in the programme?

Answer 24

SPAM: Strategic Promotions Advice and Mentoring programme
Aim: To support level D and E science women to apply for promotion to level E
- Long but very cost-effective programme
- Didn’t feel alone any more - support
- Integrated theory with practical applications (literally)
1. Education about underrepresentation and myths associated with promotions
2. Wrote applications and CVs that were reviewed by M/F mentors
3. Final draft review
4. Conducted mock interviews - mastery of behaviour (e.g. less “we did”, more “I did”)
5. End - Successful applicants can become future mentors, and library of past applications/CVs
Success! Large increase in women applying for Level E since the start of the programme.

Question 25

What makes AAPs more successful, according to research? (5)

Answer 25

• Endorsed by executives (CEO, vice-chancellor)
• Clear and persuasive communication about the goals and justification for AA policy
• Emphasise self-interest/benefits for non-beneficiaries of AAPs (e.g. LT benefits, higher job satisfaction)
• Publicly emphasise to employees the practical value of a diverse workplace (social cog understanding)
• Identifying factors that promote attitudinal/behavioural support for AAPs within higher education context.

Question 26

How does White et al.’s (2008) integration of the TRA and ELM models predict factors that contribute to attitudinal and behavioural support for AAPs? What did they find in their experiment?

Answer 26

(Best to refer to diagram in notes)
ELM (Elaboration Likelihood model): Attitudinal and behavioural support for AAPs are influenced by the following:
- Information provided (valence, central vs peripheral processing, and their interaction)
- Demographics of participant (sex, minority status)
TRA (Theory of Reasoned Action):
Evaluative beliefs –> General attitude –> Intention –> Expressed behaviour
- All the above is influenced by the perceived subjective norm for each component.
Integration of ELM and TRA: The interaction of valence x processing route influences the participants’ evaluative beliefs, and the valence of this information influences their general attitude towards AAPs.

FINDINGS:

• Centrally processed messages (vs peripheral) –> More positive evaluative beliefs and intentions –> More behavioural AAP support.
• Higher subjective likelihood (intention) of engaging in AA behaviour –> More likely to demonstrate behavioural support for AAPs, by giving special consideration to minority candidate
• Mediating role of intention in AA attitude-behavioural relationship in TRA

Question 27

What are the correlates of AAP support?

Answer 27

Positive correlates:
+ Diversity experiences, Women, Belief in prevalence of discrim, Personal experience of discrimination
Negative correlates:
- Belief in merit, Political conservatives, Structure of AAP - “Preferential treatment”

Question 28

How can the prototypicality problem be addressed?

Answer 28

Stainback and Kwon (2012): Having female managers reduces gender inequality in subordinates, by:
A. Decreasing ingroup preference and stereotypes
B. Increasing women’s access to career-enhancing social networks and mentoring opportunities
Having female leaders - very effective in reducing sexual discrimination!

Question 29

What does Cairns, Devine et al’s (2013) experiment propose as ways to reduce sexual prejudice in science?

Answer 29

Ran interactive workshops to show that gender bias impedes the advance of science
1. Origin of bias as habit (learnt stereotypes –> bias)
2. Bias literacy (e.g. expectancy bias, gender norms, role congruity, stereotype priming and threat)
3. Bias reduction: Stereotype replacement, perspective-taking, increase opportunity for contact
Intervention involving gender bias as changeable habit – success in promoting gender equity behaviour –> better climate

Question 30

What are conclusions that can be drawn about sexual discrimination and its reduction?

Answer 30

1. Negative gender stereotypes are the basis of inequality/sexual discrimination
2. Continued unlearning of gender stereotypes (lead-M) and relearning neutral associations (leader-performance) are needed
3. Gender-neutral associations taught early and consistently across contexts can allow gender neutral scripts to be highly accessible across lifespan