Sensation, Perception, & Consciousness Flashcards
Comorbidity
Simultaneous presentation of two or more psychological disorders
Positive schizophrenic symptoms
Hallucinations, delusion, disorganized/incoherent speech, disorganized/agitated behavior
Negative schizophrenic symptoms
Apathy (lack of motivation), social withdrawal, flat affect (emotional flattening), poverty (lack) of speech, and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure)
Validity
Accuracy of a study or measure
Internal validity
Refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result
Major threats to: confounding variables, selection bias, maturation, repeated testing, regression toward the mean
External validity
Also known as generalizability, is the extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory to real-life situations
Major threats to: artificial research environment, non representative sample, measurement effects
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
- Infancy: trust vs mistrust
- Early childhood: autonomy vs shame/doubt
- Play age: initiative vs guilt
- School age: industry vs inferiority
- Adolescence: identity vs role confusion
- Early adulthood: intimacy vs isolation
- Middle age: generativity vs stagnation
- Old age: integrity vs despair
Two separate pathways for visual processing
Parvo pathway (color and form) and the magno pathway (motion and depth)
Mechanoreceptors
Detects movement
Stimuli: sound waves, touch
Example: hair cells (ear)
Chemoreceptors
Detects chemicals
Stimuli: molecules, solutes
Example: taste buds (tongue)
Thermoreceptor
Detects temperature
Stimuli: heat, cold
Example: skin
Photoreceptor
Detects light waves
Stimuli: visible light
Example: rods, cones (retina)
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
- (< 2) sensorimotor
- (2-7) preoperational
- (7-11) concrete operational
- (>12) formal operational
Place theory
The perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is)
Inside the cochlea, specific sound wavelengths generate basilar membrane vibrations at specific loci (each of these loci corresponds to a Hz); hair cells located at the base of basilar membrane are activated by high Hz sounds, and hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low Hz sounds
Frontal lobe
Executive functions, voluntary motor initiation
Parietal lobe
Proprioception, somatosensation
Includes primary somatosensory cortex
Temporal lobe
Auditory processing, learning, memory
Includes Wernicke’s area
Occipital lobe
Visual processing
Parkinson disease
Associated with the loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra (a structure in the basal ganglia that inhibits excess movement)
- A dopamine deficit in the basal ganglia causes motor symptoms such as resting tremors, muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait, lack of coordination
Dopamine antagonist
Work in part by blocking the action of dopamine, an excess of which in certain areas of the brain has been linked to psychotic symptoms
- These medications can have side effects that resemble the motor symptoms of Parkinson disease
Dopamine (monoamine)
Pleasure, reward
Function: to mediate the reward pathway and motor control
Norepinephrine (monoamine)
Alertness, attention, memory formation
Serotonin (monoamine)
Positive mood, satisfaction, social dominance
Monoamine hypothesis
The biomedical model of depression
The idea that the depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous system directly causes depression symptoms
Monoamine: single amine group in their molecular structure and are associated with emotion regulation
Basal ganglia
Three dopaminergic pathways: direct, indirect, and nigrostriatal
Direct/indirect: have excitatory and inhibitory effects on motor function
Nigrostriatal: helps maintain the balance between these two pathways (becomes damaged when dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra are destroyed)
Symptoms of depression
Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness
Lack of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)
Changes in appetite and sleep
Fatigue
Low self-worth or guilt
Cognitive difficulties
Thoughts about death or suicidal ideation
Symptoms of depression
Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness
Lack of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)
Changes in appetite and sleep
Fatigue
Low self-worth or guilt
Cognitive difficulties
Thoughts about death or suicidal ideation
Nucleus accumbens
Structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain
Reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Decrease the breakdown of monoamines (eg, serotonin) by inhibiting monoamine oxidase (an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation of monoamines)
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Block reuptake of serotonin from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron, thereby prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft
Antidepressant medications function via the four general mechanisms
- Increasing production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron
- Promoting the release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft
- Blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron
- Decreasing breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron
Top-down processing
Beliefs, ideas, expectations guide perception
Bottom-up processing
Sensory input, guides perception
Absolute threshold
The intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time
Difference threshold/just-noticeable difference
The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold
Signal detection theory
Quantifies how judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid “noise” (external or internal distractions)
Confidence intervals (CIs)
Represent a measure of uncertainty in a reported value by indicating how far the value reported might be from the true value
Circadian biomarkers
Cortisol (peaks immediately after waking up and is lowest just before sleep), melatonin (peaks during sleep but remains relatively low during waking hours) , and core body temperature (38 C in daytime and 36 C just before waking up)
Parasomnias
Disorders involving the abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep
Most likely to occur in childhood
Ex: night terrors, somnambulism
Dyssomnias
Disorders involving difficulty falling asleep/staying asleep, poor sleep quality, inappropriate sleep timing
Most likely to occur in adulthood
Ex: insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy
Hypothalamus
Centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, this regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rythms
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
When light levels are high, the SCN down-regulates melatonin production by the pineal gland
When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland
Stress in relation to NS
- Increase activation of the sympathetic nervous system (increase epinephrine, cortisol, heart rate, blood pressure, glucose release)
- Decrease activation of parasympathetic nervous system (decrease blood flow to digestive & visceral organs)
Longitudinal studies (observational)
Collecting data over a period of time, can be experimental (data is manipulated) or observational, both are useful for measuring how variables change over time
Can assess risk factors or outcomes
Subjective contours
Also known as reification or illusory contours, describes how our mind fills in the gaps
Kinesthetic sense
Proprioceptors in muscles, joints, tendons, & skin detect movement & position of body/limbs
Kinesthetic input provides awareness of location of parts of the body in space & how they are moving
Vestibular sense
The vestibular system maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (otolith organs) & head rotation (semicircular canals)
Motion sickness arises from conflict between vestibular system & visual input
Organ of Corti
Located within the cochlea of the inner ear
Stereopsis
The perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes
Binocular depth cues
Retinal disparity: distance between the two eyes, results in different images projected onto the respective retinas; the closer an object scene is to the eyes, the more dramatic the disparity
Convergence: occurs because of the angular positioning of the eyes: the closer an object is to the observer, the more the eyes turn inwards (or converge) to focus
Sensory adaptation
Diminished response by the NS when presented with an unchanging stimulus over a period of time
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences our perception and cognition
Linguistic determinism
A stronger version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, that states that language controls perception and cognition
Fovea
Contains the greatest density of cones in the retina
Randomized controlled trial (experimental)
Random allocation into treatment & placebo groups
Can determine efficacy of the intervention
Nonrandomized design (experimental)
Nonrandom allocation into treatment & placebo groups
Can determine efficacy of the intervention
Cross-sectional (observational)
Data gathered at one point in time
Can determine prevalence of an outcome in a population
Case-control (observational)
Data gathered from individuals with the condition of interest (cases) & compared to individuals without the condition (controls)
Case (observational)
Detailed information gathered about one individual (or a small group)
Meta-analysis (review)
Data from multiple studies are statistically combined & analyzed
Visual field (central & peripheral)
Central: increase density cone photoreceptors, bright light conditions, color& detail perception, increase visual acuity
Peripheral: increase density rod photoreceptors, dim light conditions, motion perception, increase light sensitivity
Stimulants (psychoactive drug classes)
Amphetamines, cocaine
Effect: speeds up CNS function, elevates mood
Depressants (psychoactive drug classes)
Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
Effect: slows down CND function
Narcotic analgesics (“painkillers,” psychoactive drug classes)
Morphine, codeine, heroin
Effect: lessens sensation of pain
Hallucinogens (psychoactive drug classes)
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Effect: triggers mind-altering effects
Feature detection
Involved the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors (which are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli)
Most commonly used in vision
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement: (+) apply a + stimulus (-) remove a - stimulus
Punishment: (+) apply a - stimulus (-) remove a + stimulus
What do rewarding stimuli do (commonly abused drugs
Increase dopaminergic activity in the brain by increasing the production of dopamine, interfering with its clearance from receptors, or directly stimulating dopamine receptors in the brain
Stress (HPA axis)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) > pituitary gland > adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) > adrenal cortext > cortisol
Stress (fight or flight)
Nerve signal > adrenal medulla > epinephrine & norepinephrine
Attribution theory
Assesses situational and dispositional influences on behavior
Actor-observer bias
Part of attribution theory that states that actors tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, while observers tend to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors; too specific and not considered its own theory
Beta waves
Associated with being aware and alert
Alpha waves
Associated with decreased alertness, day-dreaming, and dozing
Theta and delta waves
Associated with sleep
Self-stigmas
Result of internalizing past experiences of discrimination or mistreat
Out-group derogation
Refers to when in-group members discriminate against out-group members
Ego depletion
Refers to the idea of self-control as a limited resource
Psychological disorder related to an increase in sensitivity to epinephrine
Panic disorder (precipitated by the use of exogenous epinephrine)
Bipolar disorder
Mood disorder related to increased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine
Clyclothymia
Nonpsychotic bipolar disorder experienced over a period of 2 years or longer
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Involved the focus on one thought (obsession) and the belief that a particular action will fix the object of the thought (compulsion); related to frontal lobe metabolism
Histrionic personality disorders
Characterized by dramatic, attention-seeking, and seductive behaviors
Schizoid personality disorder
Lifelong pattern of social withdrawl
Vestibular sense
Controls balance and spatial inertia
Somatoform disorder
Defined as pain without any discernable physical source
Actions are shaped by self-image and circumstances at the time of the action
Dramaturgical approach
