Semester One Final Study Guide Flashcards
What is anatomy?
Structure, shape, location, what something is made of, scale (large or small), terminology
What is physiology?
Function, how it works, cellular or chemical level, physics (forces, pressure, electricity), processes
What are the levels of organization in A&P (small to big)?
Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
What are the 11 organ systems?
Urinary, cardiovascular, lymphatic, nervous, reproductive, skeletal, digestive, respiratory, edocrine, muscular, integumentary
What are the major organs of the urinary system? (4)
Urethra, Ureter, Urinary bladder, Kidney
What are the major organs of the cardiovascular system? (2)
Blood vessels, heart
What are the major organs of the lymphatic system? (3)
Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct
What are the major organs of the nervous system? (4)
Brain, nerves, spinal cord, sensory receptors
What are the major organs of the reproductive system? (11)
Seminal vesicles, ovaries, vagina, scrotum, testes, penis, uterine tube, vas deferens, mammary gland, uterus, prostate gland
What are the major organs of the skeletal system? (3)
Bones, joints, cartilages
What are the major organs of the digestive system? (11)
Oral cavity, stomach, esophagus, small intestine, salivary glands, large intestine, liver, anus, rectum, pharynx, pancreas
What are the major organs of the endocrine system? (8)
Thyroid gland, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thymus gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries
What are the major organs of the respiratory system? (7)
Oral cavity, lungs, bronchi, larynx, trachea, pharynx, nasal cavity
What is the major organ of the muscular system? (1)
Skeletal muscles
What are the major organs of the integumentary system? (3)
Nails, skin, hair
What is a negative feedback loop? What are some examples?
A negative feedback loop is a feedback loop which reduces deviation from a set point. Examples include blood sugar, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and body temperature.
What is a positive feedback loop? What are some examples?
A positive feedback loop is a feedback loop in which an initial stimulus causes an increase in that stimulus until something stops it (the intended outcome). Examples include childbirth and blood clotting.
What does superior mean?
Above
What does inferior mean?
Below
What does anterior mean?
Towards the front of the body
What does posterior mean?
Towards the back of the body
What does medial mean?
Towards the midline
What does lateral mean?
Towards the side of the body
What does intermediate mean?
Between one thing that is more medial and another that is more lateral
What does proximal mean?
Closer to the origin (of a limb)
What does distal mean?
Further from the origin (of a limb)
What does superficial mean?
Towards the surface
What does deep mean?
Further from the surface
What does ventral mean?
Towards the belly side of the body
What does dorsal mean?
Towards the spine side of the body
What is the anatomical position?
Standing up, facing forward, eyes, feet, and palms forward
Where does the sagital plane run?
Dividing the body into two parts (doesn’t have to be on the midline but rind along the same plane)
Where does the midsagital/medial plane run?
On the midline
Where does the frontal/coronal plane run?
Dividing the body into its front and back (dorsal and ventral) parts
Where does the transvers/cross plane run?
Dividing the body into the top and bottom parts (at the waist perpendicular to the main axis)
Which body cavities are dorsal cavitites? (2)
Cranial and spinal
Which body cavities are ventral cavities? (2)
Thoracic and abdominopelvic
What is the mediastinum?
The space between the lungs
What is the inferior boundary of the thoracic cavity?
The diaphragm
What is a pathogen? What are some examples?
A pathogen is a disease causing agent. Examples include tuberculosis and salmonella.
How does your body’s first line of defense work?
The first line of defense provides a physical barrier against pathogens. The mucous membranes of the body also trap bacteria and debris.
How does your body’s second line of defense work?
Phagocytes and macrophages (nonspecific defenders) attack pathogens, fever begins, and histamines and kinins (hormones) begin the inflammatory response
What are the five signs of inflammation?
Redness, swelling, pain, limited joint movement, heat
What causes inflammation to occur?
Injured cells release histamines and kinins which dilate blood vessels, increase permeability of capillaries, activate pain receptors, and attract phagocytes to the injured area.
How does your body’s third line of defense work?
Immunocompetent lymphocytes begin to respond to antigens, T cells activate B cells which produce antibodies to tag antigens for destruction.
What is the difference between an antigen and antibody?
An antigen is a marker for destruction, an antibody is a protein secreted in response to a stimulus to destroy pathogens.
What are characteristics of epithelial tissues?
Avascular, regenerate easily, form boundaries, tightly packed, always have one free edge
What are the general functions of epithelial tissues?
Form the lining, covering, and glandular tissues of the body
What are the five types of epithelial tissue?
Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified sqamous, psuedostratified columnar
What types of epithelial tissues have goblet cells? (2)
Simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar
Which type of epithelial tissue has cilia? (1)
Psedostratified columnar
Which type of epithelial tissue has both cilia and goblet cells?
Psedostratified columnar
What are the general fuctions of connective tissue?
Protection, support, connection
Where is connective tissue found?
Widely distributed throughout the body
What are general characteristics of connective tissue?
Abundant extracellular matrix, vascular, mitotic
What are the five cell types in connective tissue?
Osteocytes (bone), chondrocytes (cartilage), fibroblasts (make fibers), adipocytes (fat), and blood cells
What are the main characteristics of areolar tissue? (for identification purposes)
No lacunae or fibers visible
What are the main characteristics of hyaline cartilage? (for identification purposes)
Lacunae visible, no fibers visible
What are the main characteristics of fibrocartilage? (for identification purposes)
Lacunae and fibers visble
What is the main characteristic of bone? (for identification purposes)
Concentric rings visible
What is the main characteristic of adipose tissue? (for identification purposes)
Not a lot of extracellular matrix visible
What is extracellular matrix and what is it made of?
The ECM is matrix secreted by cells made of fibers and a structureless ground substance
Which types of muscle tissue are mitotic?
Smooth and cardiac
Which types of muscle tissue are amotic?
Skeletal
Which types of muscle tissue are voluntary?
Skeletal
Which types of muscle tissue are involuntary?
Smooth and cardiac
Describe the shape/appearance of skeletal muscle
Super long and cylindrical
Describe the shape/appearance of cardiac muscle
Short and branched
Describe the shape/appearance of smooth muscle
Short and spindle shaped
Which types of muscle cells are multinucleate? (for identification purposes)
Skeletal
Which types of muscle cells have intercalated disks? (for identification purposes)
Cardiac
Where is skeletal muscle found?
Attached to bones
Where is cardiac muscle found?
In the heart
Where is smooth muscle found?
Lining hollow organs
What is the function of nervous tissue?
To send electrochemical impulses
What are the two cells types of nervous tissue?
Neurons (nerve cells which are amitotic) and supporting cells (supporting mitotic cells which have no long extensions and surround neurons)
What is fibrosis?
Replacement with dense connective tissue (scar tissue) instead of original tissue type
What does tissue repair require?
Mitosis and good vascularity
What are the three types of epithelial membranes?
Cutaneous, mucous, and serous
What type of membrane is a synovial membrane?
Connective
What is the main characteristic of a cutaneous membrane and where is it located?
It is a dry membrane located in the skin.
What are the two tissue types that make cutaneous membranes?
1) keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium
2) dense connective tissue
Where are mucous membranes found?
In the four body cavities (respiratory, urinary, digestive, reproductive)
What tissue types make mucous membranes? (2)
1) the epithelial type varies
2) areolar connective tissue
Where are serous membranes found?
In the ventral body cavities (thoracic, abdominopelvic, mediastinum)
True or false: serous membranes always have two layers?
True (parietal, visceral)
What is the function of a cutaneous membrane?
Protection
What is the function of a mucous membrane?
To absorb and secrete
What is the function of a serous membrane?
To protect and lubricate
What is the function of a synovial membrane?
To cushion and lubricate
What are the three layers of the skin (superficial to deep)?
Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis (not truly part of the skin)
What are the main characteristics of the stratum corneum?
The thickest layer of the epidermis, completely dead cells full of keratin
What are the main characteristics of the stratum basale?
The layer closest to the dermis that is the most well nourished and actively mitotic
What is the function of keratinocytes and where are the located?
Waterproofing, all 5 strata
What is the function of melanocytes and where are they located?
Skin pigmentation, stratum basale
What is the function of free nerve endings and where are they located?
Free nerve endings sense temperature and pain and are located in the dermal papillae
What is the function of pacinian corpuscles and where are they located?
Pacinian corpuscles sense deep pressure and are located deep in the dermis
What is the function of meissner’s corpuscles are where are they located?
Meissner’s corpuscles sense light touch and are located in the dermal papillae
What is the function of collagen?
Firmness and strength of the skin
What is the function of elastin?
Elasticity of the skin
Where are sebaceous glands located?
All over the skin except the palms and soles of the feet
Where do sebaceous glands empty?
Hair follicles
What is the function of the sebum secreted by sebaceous glands?
Keeps skin soft and moist and prevents hair from becoming brittle
Where are eccrine glands found and where do they empty?
Widely distributed in the skin, empty onto the skin
What is the function of the sweat secreted by eccrine glands?
Keep you cool
Where are appocrine glands found and what is their function?
Appocrine glands are found in the axillary and genital areas and secrete fatty acids into the hair folices
What is the difference between and endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?
An endocrine gland’s excretion stays inside the body (adrenal gland), while and exocrine gland’s excretion is excreted to the outside of the body (eccrine glands)
What are the five funcitons of the skeletal system?
Support, protection, framework for movement, storage, blood cell formation
What is the diaphysis and what is it composed of?
The diaphysis is the shaft of the bone..
What is the periosteum?
A fibrous connective tissue membrane used for protection
What is the epiphysis?
The ends of a long bone which consist of a layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone
What is articular cartilage?
Glassy hyaline cartilage that decreases friction at joints.
What is the medullary cavity?
The cavity of the shaft used for adipose storage
What is yellow marrow?
The adipose tissue stored in the cavity of a bone’s shaft
What is red marrow?
In infants, where blood cells are formed in the cavity of the shaft of a long bone (this also takes place in the epiphysis of adults)
What is the function of a tendon?
Tendons hold bone to muscle
What is the function of a ligmanet?
Ligaments hold bones together
What is a trabeculae?
A piece if bone found in spongy bone to provide strength to the spongy bone
What is ossification?
The hardening of cartilage into bone
What is a fontanel?
Cartilage that has not yet hardened on a newborn. A “soft spot”
What do chondroblasts do?
Deposite cartilage/make cartilage
What do chondroclasts do?
Destory cartilage/break it down
What do osteoblasts do?
Deposite bone
What do osteoclasts do?
Break down bone
How do osteoblasts and osteoclasts play a role in maintaining blood calciu levels?
If blood clacium is too high, the thyrod gland secretes clacitonin which activate osteoblasts which take calcium from the blood to be stored in the bones. If blood calcium is too low, the parathyroid gland activates osteoclasts which take calcium from the bones and puts it into the blood to raise the level of calcium in the blood.
What are the three reasons calcium is always need in the blood?
1) muscle contraction
2) nerve impulses
3) blood clotting
What is an example of a fibrous joint?
A stuture (immovable and made of dense CT)
What is an example of a cartilaginous joint?
The pubic symphysis (made of fibrocarilage) and the costal cartilages (made of hyaline catilage)
What is an example of a synovial joint/
The shoulder
How many cervical vertabrae do you have?
7
How many thoracic vertabrae do you have?
12
Jow many lumbar vertabrae do you have?
5
What are the three types of ribs?
True ribs (attach to the sternum directly), false ribs (attach to the sternum indireclty ), and the floating ribs (not attached to the sternum at all)
Which bones are part of the pectoral girdle? (2)
The scapula and clavicle
Which bones are part of the pelvic girdle? (5)
The illium, sacrum, coccyx, ischium, pubis, and pubcic symphysis
What is the difference between the pelvis and pelvic girdle?
The pelvic girdle is formed by a single hip bone. The hip bone attaches the lower limb to the axial skeleton through its articulation with the sacrum. The right and left hip bones, plus the sacrum and the coccyx, together form the pelvis
What are the four basic properties of muscle tissue?
1) Excitability
2) Contractility
3) Extensibility
4) Elasticity
What are the four functions of the muscular system?
1) Movement
2) Posture (holding you upright)
3) Stabilizing joints
4) Heat (muscles contract to increase blood flow and keep you warm)
Describe the structure of muscles (bundles of bundles)
Muscles Fascicles Muscle fibers (muscle cells) Myofibrils Myofilaments (actin or myosin)
Connective tissue surrounding a fascicle.
Perimysium
Connective tissue ensheathing the entire muscle
Epimysium
Contractile unit of muscle
Sarcomere
Thin connective tissue surrounding each muscle cell
Endomysium
Cell membrane of a muscle cell
Sarcolemma
A single bundle of muscle cells
Fascicle
What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
bind to regulatory sites on troponin to remove contraction inhibition
What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction?
ATP breaks the bond between an actin and myosin head when ATP binds to the myosin head. ATP is then broken down to ADP and phosphate, releasing energy which is stored in the myosin head to be used later for movement.
What are the five golden rules of muscle activity?
1) All muscles cross at least one joint (usually)
2) The bulk of the muscle lies proximal to the joint crossed
3) All muscles have at least two attachments (the origin and the insertion)
4) Muscles can only pull
5) During contraction, the insertion becomes the origin
Why is the immune system not considered an organ system?
It is not made up of organs
