SEMESTER 2 EXAM Flashcards
(175 cards)
1
Q
Scientific Method
A
- Question
- Background research
- Hypothesis
- Experiment
- Collect/analyse data
- Observation
- Conclusion
2
Q
Hypothesis
A
A possible explanation or solution to a problem
3
Q
Dependent Variable
A
the variable being measured
4
Q
Independent Variable
A
the variable being changed
5
Q
Control Variables
A
the variables remaining the same
6
Q
Validity
A
If the experiment tests what it is supposed to test
7
Q
Reliability
A
If the experiment gives the same results each time
8
Q
DNA
A
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
9
Q
DNA structure
A
- Strands are bound to proteins (histones), so the long molecules can fit into small spaces
- Two strands of alternating sugars and phosphates
- Pairs of nitrogen bases forming cross-linking between the sugar molecules
- Adenine = Thymine
- Cytosine = Guanine
10
Q
RNA
A
- Ribonucleic Acid
11
Q
RNA Structure
A
- Single chain of nucleotides that contain the sugar ribose
- Carries information from the DNA in the nucleus to where proteins are made
12
Q
Transcription
A
- The information in DNA is transferred to mRNA
1. Enzymes unzip the molecule of DNA
2. Free RNA nucleotides form base pairs with complimentary nucleotides of DNA
3. The mRNA strand leaves nucleus
13
Q
Translation
A
- converting the information of mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in proteins
1. A ribosome attaches to the mRNA strand. A tRNA anticodon with the nRNA codon
2. Usually first codon is AUG. The ribosome then slides over one codon on the mRNA
3. The new tRNA molecules carrying another amino acid pair with the second mRNA codon
4. The mains acids are joined by a peptide bond
5. A chain of amino acids is formed until a stop codon is reached
6. The amino acids become a protein when release from the ribosome. The chain twists up to make a protein
14
Q
Passive process
A
Doesn’t require energy
15
Q
Active process/transport
A
Requires energy
goes against concentration gradient
16
Q
Differentially permeable membrane
A
- allows certain ions and molecules to pass through, but restricts movement of others
17
Q
Diffusion
A
a passive process resulting from the random movement of ions and molecules; osmosis is a special case of diffusion where water passes across the membrane
HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO LOWER
18
Q
Carrier-Mediated Transport
A
- a process that requires special proteins in the cell membrane; it may be passive or active depending on the exact nature of the mechanism
19
Q
Vesicular transport
A
A process in which materials are moved in membrane-bound sacs; it is an active process
20
Q
Osmosis
A
- Diffusion of a solvent through a differentially permeable membrane
- Diffuse from higher conc. to lower conc.
- The higher the concentration, the higher the osmotic pressure
- Water does this in cells (BLOOD)
21
Q
Osteoarthritis
A
- Disease of the joints
- Cartilage breaks down causing pain and stiffness in joints
- Common in 45+ year olds
22
Q
Osteoarthritis (CAUSES)
A
- knees: overweight, injury, repetitive kneeling, climbing, squatting
- hips: overweight, injury, repetitive heavy lifting
- hands: repetitive use of hands, injury
23
Q
Osteoarthritis (SYMPTOMS)
A
- stiffness
- joint pain
- muscle weakness
- clicking noises
- grating sensations
- lack of flexibility
24
Q
Osteoarthritis (DIAGNOSIS)
A
- xray
- physical examination
25
Skeletal System
- 206 bones
- Support
- Protect
- Provide movement
26
Axial System
- Skull bones, the vertebrae, the ribs, the sternum
27
Vertebrae
- Cervical (neck)
- Thoracic (chest/ribs)
- Lumbar (lower back)]
- Sacral (pelvis)
- Terminal (Coccyx)
28
Appendicular System
Limbs
pectoral girdle
pelvic girdle
29
Compact bone
dense
| compact
30
Spongey/Cancellous bone
porous
| large spaces filled with marrow
31
Large Bone
- primarily compact bone by may have spongey bone
- bones that are longer than they are wide
- consists of a long shaft and two bulky ends
e. g. arm, leg
32
Short Bones
- primarily spongey bone and thin layer of compact bone
| - wrist and ankle
33
Flat Bones
- thin, flattened and curved
| - Cranium
34
Irregular Bones
- If not in any other classification
- primarily spongey bone with thin layer of compact bone
- vertebrae
35
Fibrous Joint
- fixed joint
- held in place by connective tissue
- difficult to damage
- e.g. skull/jaw
36
Cartilaginous Joint
- Held in place by cartilage
- slight movement
- e.g. ribs/vertebrae
37
Synovial Joints
- freely moveable
- pivot
- ball and socket
- hinge
- gliding
- saddle
- condyloid
38
Pivot Joint
- rounded, pointed or conical end of one bone articulates with a ring, formed partly by bone and partly by ligament
- e.g. radius and ulna (near hand) or neck
39
Ball and Socket Joint
- spherical head fits into a cup-like cavity of another
| - e.g. shoulder or hip
40
Hinge Joint
- like a hinge door
| - e.g. knee, elbow
41
Gliding Joint
- movement in any direction in a side-to-side or back-and-forth motion
- found between carpal and tarsal bones
- restricted by ligaments
42
Saddle Joint
- two saddle shaped bones interlocking
- thumbs
- concave in one direction, convex in the other
43
Condyloid Joint
- one surface is slightly convex which fits into a slightly concave
- e.g. radius and carpals
44
Tendons
- tough but flexible structure made of fibrous tissue that joins a bone to a muscle
45
Ligament
- bands of connective tissue that link two or more bone
46
Muscular System
- 650+ muscles
| - work in pairs to provide movement
47
Cardiac Muscle
- found in heart
- made of striated fibres
- contracts involuntarily and rhythmically
- resistance to fatigue
48
Smooth Muscle
- involuntarily muscle
- covers hollow walls of many organs e.g. oesophagus, stomach
- contracts slowly
49
Skeletal Muscle
- striated or voluntary
- attached bones by tendons
- contraction quick
- controlled
50
Enzymes
- Protein that allow chemical reactions to take place at normal body temperature
- reduces activation energy
- enzyme and substrate have complimentary characteristics to one another
51
Factors effecting enzymes
- Higher concentration = increased rate of reaction
- Increasing substrate concentration = increases rate of reaction (due to more collisions)
- Removing products (makes it difficult for substrate to contact with enzyme)
- Increasing temp = increase rate of reaction
- pH level (sensitive and only work in optimum conditions)
52
Mechanical Digestion
- mouth; food is broken down into smaller pieces
- stomach; waves of muscular concentration that move along the stomach wall (contract until the food is converted to a thick soupy liquid)
- small intestine
53
Teeth
- Incisors (4); chisel-shaped, bitting and cutting
- Canines (2); either side of incisor, tearing
- Premolars (2); two on each side of the jaw
- Molars (6); fit into each other, crushing and grinding food
54
Red Blood Cells
Erythrocytes
55
White Blood Cells
Leucocytes
56
Platelets
Thrombocytes
57
Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart
- have blood pressure that increases as the ventricles contract and decrease as the ventricles relax
- thick, muscular, elastic walls
- no valves
58
Veins
- carry blood back to the hear
- constant, relatively low blood pressure
- thin, inelastic walls with little muscle
- have valves
59
Capillaries
- tiny vessels that carry blood between the cells
- enables to get their requirements from the blood and to pass their waste into blood
- walls only 1 cell thick so transport of substances is easier
60
ARTERIES
carry blood away from the heart to the body
61
PULMONARY ARTERY
blood to the lungs for gas exchange (deoxygenated)
62
AORTA
blood to the body cells (oxygenated
63
VEINS
carry blood to the heart from the body
64
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
bringing blood to the heart from the upper body (deoxygenated)
65
INFERIOR VENA CAVA
bringing blood to the heart from lower body (deoxygenated)
66
PULMONART VEIN
bringing blood to the heart from the lungs (oxygenated)
67
Ventricular Systole
- Atria relax and refill while the ventricles relax
- Forces blood into arteries
- Both atria contract simultaneously, as do ventricles
68
Lymph Vessels
- arterial end of blood capillary, fluid tends to leak out due to high pressure in the blood
- collect fluid that escapes from blood capillaries and return it to the circulatory system
- leaked fluid is returned via lymphatic system
- lymph does not circulate (ONE WAY SYSTEM)
- permeable
69
MITOSIS STAGES
- Interphase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokinesis
70
Interphase
DNA molecules duplicate
71
Prophase
- Nucleoli disappear
- nuclear membrane breaks down
- centrioles migrate to opposite poles
- chromosomes appear as pairs of chromatids
- spindle forms
72
Metaphase
- Chromosomes line up on the spindle at the equator of the cell
73
Anaphase
- Centromeres divide
| - Chromosomes move to opposite ends of the spindle
74
Telophase
- spindle disappears
- nuclear membrane and nucleoli form
- centrioles divide
- chromosomes uncoil and disappear
- cytokinesis begins
75
Cytokinesis
- cytoplasm of the cell divides into two
| - each have a new nucleus
76
MEIOSIS STAGES
- Interphase
- Prophase I
- Metaphase I
- Anaphase I
- Telophase I
- Prophase II
- Metaphase II
- Anaphase II
- Telophase II
(same thing as mitosis, just happens twice to get 4 daughter cells)
Crossing over of chromosomes
77
Mitosis
- One duplications of chromosomes and one nuclear division
- Two diploid cells
- Homologous chromosomes do not pair
- Chromatids separate so that each new cell gets a complete set of daughter chromosomes
- Chromosomes do not change their genetic make-up
- Produces new cells for growth and repair
78
Meiosis
- One duplication of chromosomes and two nuclear divisions
- Produces four haploid cells
- Homologous chromosomes pair off
- At first meiotic division, members of homologous pairs separate so that new cells get a haploid set of chromosomes
- At second division, chromatids separate, giving four haploid cells
- Genetic make-up of chromosomes can be changes through crossing over
- Produces haploid gametes for sexual reproduction
79
Structure of cell membrane
- composed of phospholipid molecules (lipid molecules containing a phosphate group)
- arranged in bilayer
- Hydrophilic (water-loving); head end
- Hydrophobic (water-hating); tail end
- Head outside, tail inside
80
Pluripotent
form all the cell types in a body
81
Omnipotent
differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types
82
Multipotent
cells that have the capacity to self-renew by dividing and to develop into multiple specialised cell types present in a specific tissue or organ
83
Totipotent
the egg cell in a woman and the sperm cell from a man fuse together to form a single cell called the zygote
84
Diffusion
- spreading out of particles so that they are evenly distributed over the space available
- occurs because molecules are constantly moving (until they collide with container of another particle)
- Molecules moving away from concentrated area experience fewer collisions than if it were moving to a higher concentrated area therefore they stay on their straight paths and move into areas where the concentration of molecules is lower
85
Facilitated Diffusion
- passive process which substances move with concentration gradient
- molecule being transported attaches to binding site on the carrier protein
- protein changes shape and the molecules is released on the other side
86
1st stage of labour
- dilation of cervix
- contractions
- 8 to 9 hours
87
2nd stage of labour
- delivery of the foetus
| - 20 mins to 2 hours
88
3rd stage of labour
- delivery of placenta
89
PATHWAY OF OXYGEN TO THE BODY
```
- • Air enters the nostrils
• passes through the nasopharynx,
• the oral pharynx
• through the epiglottis
• into the trachea
• into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into
• bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of
• alveoli
```
90
Parts of a cell
- cytoplasm
- centrioles
- endoplasmic reticulum
- ribosomes
- cytoskeleton
- lysosome
- nucleus
- mitochondria
- golgi body
- cell membrane
91
Anabolic reaction
reactions in which small molecules are built up into larger ones
require energy
92
Catabolic reaction
reactions in which in which large molecules are broken down into smaller ones
release energy
93
Cellular respiration
- metabolic process
- organic molecules (taken in as food) broken down in the cells to release energy for the cell's activity
- glucose formed from breakdown of carbohydrates
- amino acids formed from breakdown of proteins
- fatty acids formed from breakdown of lipids
94
Cellular respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
| Glucose + Oxygen > Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
95
Energy from cellular respiration
- 60% of energy is released as heat
- remaining energy is used to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- energy is stored in the bond between the adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and third triphosphate molecule
- breaking this bond releases energy
96
Anaerobic Respiration (RESPIRATION WITHOUT OXYGEN)
- Production of lactic acid from glucose
- glucose is broken down in 10 steps to 2 pyruvic acid molecules
- no oxygen required in this initial breakdown, but if no oxygen is present the pruvic acid turns to lactic acid
- glycolysis of one molecule of glucose releases enough energy to convert two molecules of ADP to ATP
- important in physical activity when the respiratory and circulatory systems are unable to supply muscle cells with enough oxygen to meet demands
97
Aerobic Respiration (RESPIRATION WITH OXYGEN)
- complete break down of pyruvic acid from glycolysis to carbon dioxide and water
- occurs in mitochondria
- enzymes for this reaction are stored in inner membrane
- two pyruvic acid molecules produced in glycolysis enter mitochondria
- citric acid cycle occurs first (results in formation of two ATP molecules from two pyruvic acid)
- electron transport system can produce up to 34 molecules of ATP from one molecule of glucose
AEROBIC RESPIRATION HAS POTENTIAL TO CREATE 38 MOLECULES OF ATP
- 2 from glycolysis
- 2 from citric acid cycle
- 34 from electron transport system
98
Percentage make-up of blood
55% - plasma
| 45% - red, white blood cells and platelets
99
Transport of oxygen in blood
- combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
| - occurs in capillaries in the lungs (alveoli) where it diffuses
100
Why are red blood cells suited to carrying oxygen?
- contain haemoglobin
- have no nucleus, so there is more room for haemoglobin
- shaped like biconcave - increases surface area for oxygen exchange
101
Transport of carbon dioxide in blood
- combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
102
Pericardium
membrane that holds heart in place but allows it to move as it beats
103
What do valves do in the heart?
- ensure blood can only flows in one direction
| - atrioventricular valves (between atria and ventricles)
104
The cardiac cylce
Systole: pumping phase of the cycle (when heart contracts)
Diastole: filling phase of the cycle (when the hear relaxes
Atrial systole: the contraction of the atria, then follows and forces remaining blood into ventricles
Ventricular systole: atria relax, ventricles contract, forces blood into arteries
105
Blood Group A
```
Antigen = A
Antibody = Anti-B
```
106
Blood Group B
```
Antigen = B
Antibody = Anti-A
```
107
Blood Group AB
```
Antigen = A and B
Antibody = neither anti-A nor anti-B
```
108
Blood Group B
```
Antigen = Neither A or B
Antibody = Anti-A and anti-B
```
109
Nasal Cavity
- filters, warms and moistens air
| - traps dust and dirt
110
Pharynx
- air travels through from nasal cavity
111
Epiglottis
- closes off trachea so food and liquid cannot enter lungs
112
Larynx
- contains vocal cords
| - air passes through on way to lungs
113
Trachea
- carries air to and from lungs
- mucous lining and cilia
- cilia beat to move trapped mucus and particles upwards
114
Bronchi
- branch into each lung
115
Bronchioles
- fine tables with walls of smooth muscle
116
Alveoli
- clusters
- thin walled
- well supplied with capillaries
- gaseous exchange
117
Inspiration
- decrease of pressure of air in the lungs
- achieved by increasing volume of lungs
- ribs move upwards and outwards
- diaphragm flattens (contracts)
118
Expiration
- diaphragm bulges (relaxes)
| - rib cage moves downwards
119
Gaseous exchange
gases move from high concentration to lower concentration
| OCCURS IN ALVEOLI WITH CARBON DIOXIDE AND OXYGEN
120
Concentration gradient maintained in the alveoli by...
- keeping a continuous flow of blood in the capillaries
| - continuous flow of air in the alveoli
121
Antagonistic muscles
- pairs of muscles that act in opposite directions and work together to perform tasks (as one relaxes, the other contracts)
- e.g. triceps and biceps
122
Origin
end of muscle fixed to stationary bone
123
Insertion
end of muscle fixed to moveable bone
124
Contraception
Condom (male)
- Made of thin latex rubber
Rolled onto erect penis before sex
- Effective on preventing semen entering vagina
- Provides protection from STI such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B
125
Contraception
Diaphragm
- Made of thin rubber cap
- Fits over top of vagina
- Used with spermicidal cream or jelly to increase effectiveness
126
Contraception
Combined Pill
- Contains 2 substances similar to oestrogen and progesterone
- Taken daily for first 21 days
- Prevents release of mature egg, causes cervical mucus to become thick and sticky so that it is difficult for sperm to travel through vagina, and also alters the lining of uterus, so the uterus becomes less receptive to implantation of embryo
- Protects the female from unwanted pregnancy if taken daily
- If missed for more than 2 days, the hormone levels drop = no protection
127
Contraception
Nuva-Ring
- Soft ring of plastic
- Placed in vagina, left for 3 weeks, and taken out for 1 week
- Small of two hormones are released to prevent ovulation
- Mucus of cervix thickens and changes the lining of uterus
- Same hormones as combined pill but doesn’t need remembering to be taken
- Has same side effects
- Oestrogen causes side effects
128
Contraception
Rhythm Method
- An egg is available for fertilisation during a period of 3-5 days in menstrual cycle of 28 days.
- Ovulation is less likely to occur on 14th day if the female has regular 28-day cycle.
- Sexual intercourse should not occur between 4 days before and after ovulation.
- More time should be allowed, since not everytime ovulation occurs at 14th day.
129
Contraception
Cervical Cap
- Made of rubber cap
| - Fits over the cervix, with flat end inside (into the uterine cavity).
130
Contraception
Nuva-Ring
- Soft ring of plastic
- Placed in vagina, left for 3 weeks, and taken out for 1 week
- Small of two hormones are released to prevent ovulation
- Mucus of cervix thickens and changes the lining of uterus
- Same hormones as combined pill but doesn’t need remembering to be taken
- Has same side effects
- Oestrogen causes side effects
131
STI
Aids
HIV virus causes AIDS
132
STI
Chlamydia
Caused by bacterium; most commonly reported; often no symptoms in female
133
STI
Genital Warts
Caused by HPV; not everyone infected has symptoms
134
STI
Syphilis
Caused by bacteria; decreasing in women but increasing in males who have sex with other males
135
STI
Herpes
- Caused by viruses; type I causes cold sores;
| - type II commonly known as genital herpes; may be passed from mother to child during childbirth
136
STI
Pubic Lice
Parasitic infestation; commonly called crabs
137
STI
Syphilis
Caused by bacteria; decreasing in women but increasing in males who have sex with other males
138
STI
Trichomoniasis
Caused by protozoan parasite; also called trichomonas infection or “trich”
139
Epigenetics
- environmental factors affect epigenetic changes that are inherited by offspring
- actions determine what genes are 'expressed' or 'switched on' in offspring
140
Male Reproductive System
| Vans deferens
The tube that carries the sperm away from the testis
141
Male Reproductive System
| Seminal Vesicle
A pair of pouch-like structures that secrete a thick fluid which is a major part of semen
142
Male Reproductive System
| Prostate Gland
A single gland that surrounds the urethra just below the bladder; it secretes a fluid that becomes part of the semen
143
Male Reproductive System
| Epididymis
A highly folded tubule behind each testis in which the sperm mature
144
Male Reproductive System
| Scrotum
The pouch outside the abdominal cavity in with the testes are located
145
Male Reproductive System
| Testis
The male sex organ that produces sperm and the hormone testosterone
146
Male Reproductive System
| Foreskin
The loose skin covering the end of the penis
147
Male/Female Reproductive System
| Urethra
The duct that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior
148
Male Reproductive System
| Erectile tissue
Spongy tissue in the penis which fills with blood to bring about erection
149
Male Reproductive System
| Seminiferous tubule
A tightly coiled duct, located in the testis, where sperm are produced
150
Infertility Men
Erectile Dysfunction
- Disorder in which erection cannot be achieved or maintained
- 50% of males between 40 and 70 have some degree of ED
151
Infertility Women
Endometriosis
Tissues of uterine lining growing outside of the uterus
152
Infertility WOmen
Fibroids
Benign tumors in the uterine wall; affect 25% of women in their 30s and 40s
153
Infertility Women
Ovarian Cancer
Considered more deadly than other types; detection difficult and often spreads before detection
154
Infertility Men
Low or Absent Sperm Count
Minimal amount of active sperm
155
Infertility
Men and Women
- Inadequate diet
| - little exercise
156
Reproductive Technology
GAMETE INTRAFALLOPIAN TRANSFER (GIFT) (UTERUS)
- Eggs collected from the ovaries of female or the fallopian tube and are mixed with sperm.
- Resulted mixture is injected into females uterus.
- GIFT allows the egg and sperm to mix naturally and to be fertilised.
- Any fertilised eggs are passed down the fallopian tube, towards the uterus, ready for implantation (pregnancy)
- In this technique, a woman required to take fertility drug that increased the number of eggs released.
- Is increases chance for the sperm to fertilise an egg.
- Other variations include, freezing the sperm and egg mixture to be used at a later date.
157
Reproductive Technology
ZYGOTE INTRAFALLOPIAN TRANSFER (ZIFT) (FALLOPIAN TUBES)
- Infertility treatment used when a blockage in the fallopian tubes prevents the normal binding of sperm to the egg.
- Egg cells are removed from a woman's ovaries, and in vitro fertilised.
- The resulting zygote is placed into the fallopian tube by the use of laparoscopy.
158
Reproductive Technology
INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTIONS (ICSI)
- Mans sperm count very low.
- Single sperm injected into single egg, and as a result an embryo is formed.
- The embryo is then transplanted into the women uterus.
- can increase risk of birth defect.
159
Female Reproductive System
| Uterus
The hollow, pear-shaped organ situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum in females
160
Female Reproductive System
| Uterine Tube/Fallopian Tube
The tube that carries the eggs from the ovaries to the uterus
161
Female Reproductive System
| Fimbriae
Finger-like projections of the uterine tube
162
Female Reproductive System
| Ovary
The organ in which female gametes are produced
163
Female Reproductive System
| Cervix
The neck of the uterus, leading into vagina
164
Female Reproductive System
| Vagina
The canal leading from the uterus to the exterior of the female body
165
Female Reproductive System
| Labia minora/Labia majora
The fleshy fold of skin lining the opening of the vagina and urethra
166
Female Reproductive System
| Clitoris
The erectile organ of the female
167
Female Reproductive System
| Endometrium
The soft mucous lining of the uterus
168
Female Reproductive System
| Follicle
A layer of cells enclosing a germ cell in the ovary
169
Follicle-stimulating hormone
| TARGET ORGAN: Seminiferous Tubule of testis
EFFECT:
| production of sperm
170
Follicle-stimulating hormone
| TARGET ORGAN: follicles of ovaries
EFFECT:
| maturation of ovarian follicle
171
Luteinising Hormone
| TARGET ORGAN: Interstitial cells of testes
EFFECT:
| stimulates secretion of testosterone
172
Luteinising Hormone
| TARGET ORGAN: Cells of the ovaries
EFFECT:
| Stimulates secretion of oestrogen and progesterone
173
Oestrogen
EFFECT:
| Development of female reproductive system
174
Testosterone
EFFECT:
| Development of male reproductive system
175
Progesterone
| TARGET ORGAN: Uterus
EFFECT:
| Maintenance of endometrium
