Semester 1 Exam Flashcards
what type of tissue do simple squamous, stratified squamous, cuboidal, and columnar cells compose
epithelial
surface of epithelial cells that faces the outside of an organ or the inside of a vessel or tube
apical
lining the inside of blood vessels
simple squamous
lining the esophagus
stratified squamous
forming a tube in the kidney
simple cuboidal
lining the intestines
simple columnar
cells that resemble fried eggs
simple squamous
cells that resemble dice
simple cuboidal
cells that resemble bricks on end
simple columnar
cells that resemble overlapping stacks of pancakes
stratified squamous
epithelial tissue
composed of tightly packed cells that form a protective barrier and in some cases, a surface for exchange of materials (O\2, digestive enzymes, etc)
bone is
connective tissue
femur is in
ur leg
types of bone marrow
red and yellow
periosteum
fibrous membrane covering a bone, site of tendon and ligament attachment
articular cartilage
connective tissue that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber
yellow bone marrow
stores fat brought into the bone by blood
red bone marrow
stie of red blood cell production
compact bone
dense structure that makes up the shaft of the bone and surrounds the central cavity
spongy bone
honeycomb appearance due to small cavities that house red blood marrow
skin is a type of
connective tissue
dermis
contains hair follicles, sweat glands, and blood vessels and contains sensory receptors that alert ur brain if you touch a hot pan on the stove
melanocyte
type of skin cell that produces melanin, a pigment that gives skin its color, and also helps protect from UV radiation
a muscle attached to a skin component known as a ___________ is responsible for you feeling goosebumps. These quick bursts of muscle contraction generate a little heat when you are feeling cold
hair follicle
what type of tissue includes neurons
nervous
sensory neuron
move/speak/swallow/breathe send commands from brain to muscles, activated from outside stimuli such as feeling the cold of a snowball or hearing a siren, has one axon and many dendrites
motor neuron
directly control our movements from info given by sensory, have one axon and many dendrites
interneuron
only one axon split into 2 branches, connect the spinal cord to muscles, connect SN and MN, carry messages btwn brain and spinal cord
role of dendrites
collect signals (axon sends- long tube), spagehhti things
soma
surrounds nucleus in neurons
blood
type of connective tissue bc it connects the body systems, transports oxygen and nutrients to all the parts of the body, removes the waste products
erythrocytes
red blood cells, take O\2 from lungs and transport it to body’s tissues, take CO\2 waste from tissues and transport it to lungs for exhalation, stay in blood vessel, live abt 3 months, mature ones do not have nucleus
sickle cell disease
inherited, makes RBC produce abnormal hemoglobin proteins, these mQs tend to link together and crystallize which deforms RBC to sickle shape and are destroyed rapidly by body, lowers RBC count causing anemia, clog tiny blood vessels bc of shape, restricted blood flow- terrible
muscle cells are excitable and ____ meaning they can shorten and generate a pulling force
contractile
skeletal muscle
includes long cylindrical cells with a striated appearance and many peripherally located nuclei, used when u run or smile, most neatly organized one
cardiac muscle
short, branched cells that appear striated, single nucleus in each cell, contracts for heart beat, least organized one
smooth muscle
short, spindle-shaped cells with no evident striation, and a single nucelus in each cell, lines organs, looks like smeared painting
How does physiology differ from anatomy?
Physiology is how it works, anatomy is name, location, structure
What are the 4 types of tissues in the human body
Connective- bone
Nervous- neurons
Muscle- skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Epithelial- skin
epithelial tissue types
simple squamous epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, simple cuboidal epithelium and ex: skin
connective tissue sum
blood, erythrocytes aka red blood cells, sickle-cell disease
nervous tissue sum
motor neurons, sensory neurons, interneurons (connect motor and sensory neurons)
muscle tissue sum
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
circulatory system
pumps blood throughout the body. Structures include: heart, veins, blood, arteries
endocrine system
controls and releases hormones. Includes adrenaline gland and pituitary gland
muscular system
controls movement, creates heat when moved. Includes biceps, triceps, and quadriceps
skeletal system
providence frame for body and attachment for muscles, produces new blood, includes ulna, femur, rib cage
male reproductive system
sperm, balls, dick
respiratory system
controls exchange of oxygen and CO\2 in the body, includes lungs, bronchi, diaphragm
digestive system
breaks down food and adds nutrients to the bloodstream, includes stomach, esophagus, intestines
urinary system
filters liquids and produces urine, includes kidneys, bladder, urethra
excretory system
produces solid waste (feces) to be removed from the body, includes rectum, anus
female reproductive system
produces eggs, includes ovaries and uterus
nervous system
allows for all 5 senses to fxn in the body, sends electrical signals all overbody, includes brain and spinal cord
immune system
defends body against infection, includes spleen and white blood cells
five roles of human skeleton
Support
Protection
Movement
Mineral storage
Produces blood cells
appendicular vs axial skeleton
appendicular- appendages, axial- cranium to spinal cord to coccyx
tendon
bone to muscle
ligament
bone to bone
immovable/fixed joint (fibrous)
does not move- cranium
hinge joint
foward and backward motion like a door, no side to side- elbow
ball + socket joint
rotating, widest ROM- hip
pivot joint
twisting motion upon a point- neck
gliding joint
flat bones slide past one another- wrist
sliding filament theory
a sarcomere contracts (shortens) when its thin filaments slide along its thick filaments
ellipsoidal joint
forward/backward, some side to side, no rotate- finger
saddle joint
only in thumb, like ellipsoidal & limited rotation
how does swimming differ from walking in terms of the forces an animal must overcome to move?
Friction resists an animal moving through water, but gravity has little effect because of the animal’s buoyancy; air poses little resistance to an animal walking on land, but the animal must support itself against the force of gravity.
what makes ur skeleton endoskeleton and not exoskeleton
muscles attached to the skeleton (endo), rather than skeleton around muscles (exo)
what composes a muscle
muscle fibers, nuceli, plasma membrane, myofibril, sarcomere, myosin (thick filaments), actin (thin filaments)
sequence of steps in muscle contraction
(bind, powerstroke, detach, extend), 1) action potential in a motor neuron causes a depolarization of the muscle cell membrane, 2) endoplasmic reticulum releases Ca^2+ ions into cytoplasm which bind to troponin/tropomyosin, 3) troponin/tropomyosin complex shifts and unblocks the binding sites on actin, 4) heads of the myosin mQs move the thin filaments towards the middle of the sarcomere using energy from ATP, 5) actin mQ binding sites become re-blocked stopping contractions and relaxing the muscle
muscle soreness
lack of roids- microscopic tears (inflammation & heightened sense of pain) in the tissue yeah no shit everyone knows this and the more you exercise the less sore yeah this is common knowledge
the process used by a white blood cell engulfing a bacterium is called
phagocytosis
an enzyme called amylase is made in the cells of your salivary glands and secreted as part of your saliva. This process utilizes various structures of a human cell. Explain how the following structures cooperate to produce and secrete amylase: transport vesicles, rough ER, plasma membrane, chromosomes, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes.
Transport vesicles take chromosomes from the nucleus to the the rough er where amylase is produced and ribosomes bud off rer to take it to the Golgi apparatus where it is stored until it is needed and is then packaged and shipped with a transport vesicle through the plasma membrane
what characteristics define life
order, reproduction, growth and development, response to the environment, energy processing, regulation, evolutionary adaptation
order
life is characterized by highly ordered structures, all living things are composed of 1 or more cells each containing structures & instructions for carrying out life processes, ex: plant tissue, lungs, amoeba
reproduction
organisms reproduce their own kind, ex: DNA dictates person’s traits, used to replicate cells
growth and development
inherited information encoded in DNA controls the pattern of growth and development of all organisms, ex: cell size limited, cells make more cells for use in reproduction, growth, and repair
response to environment
all organisms respond to environmental stimuli, ex: venus fly trap rapidly closes its trap in response to a fly landing on it
energy processing
organisms take in energy and use it to power all their activities, ex: eating, going on a run
regulation
organisms have regulatory mechanisms that maintain a beneficial internal environment, ex: lizard sunbathing to raise body temp on cold morning
evolutionary adaptation
favorable characteristics for survival = winner of chance to reproduce, change in a species over time, organisms have diff characteristics, environment varies, ex: red panda’s warmth-providing tail
when does the property of life emerge in the hierarchy of the biosphere
cells- smallest unit of life
what is meant by an emergent property
the results from the specific arrangement and interactions of component parts, something that is new and wouldn’t have existed
why is movement considered an emergent property
bc it is arising from interactions and interconnections of an organisms’ nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems
what levels of organization support the life of a cell
cellular/molecular level- atoms, mQs, organelles
what levels result from cells working together
organismal level (then ecological)- tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms
what levels result from organisms interacting in our biosphere?
ecological levels- population, community, ecosystems, biome
how do biologists classify organisms
taxonomy- dear king phillip came over for good soup-> domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
what definition of a species in most commonly used today
a group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring
additional ways to define a species
species concepts- morphological (physical structure), biological (potential to interbreed & produce fertile offspring, reproduction), ecological (niche-role in community/ecosystem, behavioral), modern- phylogenetic (DNA and biochem processes, mQ)
how is a scientific name written
genus then species, both italicized, genus capital, Linnaeus came up with this binomial nomenclature
Carl Woese
3 domain system- bacteria, archaea, eukarya (has 4 kingdoms)
how do organisms in each kingdom/domain differ/have in common
domain: bacteria + archaea- microscopic organisms w/relatively simple cells, archaea- live in Earth’s extreme environments, eukarya- organisms w/more complex cells
3 domains
eukarya, bacteria, archaea
domain eukarya
cells with nuclei- kingdom animalia, plantae, protista, fungi,
domain bacteria
kingdom eubacteria (no nuclei), <10um, salmonella and e.coli
domain archaea
kingdom archaea (no nuclei), <10 um, extremophiles- halophites (great salt lake)
kingdom animalia/plantae/protista/fungi
all eukaryotic, APlF multicellular Pr mostly unicellular, A- ingestive & heterotroph- insects and humans, Pl- photosynthetic autotrophs- redwood tree and grass, F- absorptive heterotrophs- yeast and club fungi, Pr- filamentous or colonial (few multicellular)- algae and protozoans
kingdom eubacteria
prokaryotic (no nuclei), unicellular, filamentous, or colonial with peptidoglycans in their cell walls, salmonella and e.coli
kingdom archaea
prokaryotic (no nuclei), unicellular, filamentous, or colonial without peptidoglycans in their cell walls, most associated with extreme habitats (extremophiles), ex: extremophiles like halophites in great salt lake
extremophiles
archaea that live in extreme environments, halophites (great salt lake), thermophiles (hot acidic springs in yellowstone, methanogens (landfills and cowguts)
kingdoms with prokaryotic organisms (how do they differ)
no true nucleus nor membrane-bound organelles- domain/kingdom archaea and bacteria
kingdoms with eukaryotic organisms (how do they differ)
true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles- domain eukarya (protists, fungi, plants, animals)
difference btwn autotroph and heterotroph
auto- make own organic compound from inorganic sources (get carbon from CO2), hetero- obtain carbon from organic compounds of other organisms (eat)
difference btwn absorptive heterotroph and ingestive heterotroph
absorptive- taking nutrients directly from environment & breaks nutrients down outside the cell, ingest- eating large particles and breaking them down inside the body
how long ago did the first eukaryotic cell inhabit earth
1.8 billion years ago
how did more complex eukaryotic cells originate
originated when small prokaryotic cells capable of aerobic respiration or photosynthesis took up life inside larger cells
when did larger forms of life colonize land? How did a symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi contribute to this colonization?
about 500 million years ago, helped microorganisms to evolve over time into larger forms of life
How many years ago did our own species originate? Where do humans fit in the evolutionary timeline of life on Earth?
195,000 years ago, humans 6-7 million years ago
major unifying themes in bio
structure and function (everything has a purpose), information DNA, energy and matter (energy from sunlight), interactions between systems, evolution to get to reproduce
why is evolution the scientific explanation for the unity and diversity of life on earth
bc natural selection, genetic variation, speciation, evolve based on your environment and diverse biospheres
electron microscope
focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface, cannot be used on living specimen, can be colorized- TEM and SEM
scanning EM
study surface of a specimen, looks 3D, 5 to ~500,000 times, black and white
transmission EM
internal structure of a thin slice of specimen, excellent for cells/organelles, higher resolution than LM, 2D black and white images, 50 to ~1 million times
dissecting/scanning/stereoscope microscope
in color, illuminated from above, 3D, used for larger & opaque specimen, max magnification 100x
compound light microscope
in color, lit from below, view living/non-living specimen, 2D, low resolution, up to 1000x
biology
study of living organisms and life processes
hierarchy of life
atom, mQ, organelles, cells, tissue, organ, organ system, organisms, population, community ecosystem, biome
filamentous
chains of cells attached end to end
colonial
individual cells adhered to each other creating 3D shapes such as a fan or sphere
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
bring into focus on CLM
lowest power, center it, coarse focus, desired objective, fine focus
hooke
called the ‘little rooms’ he saw cells bc looked like monastery rooms
magnification vs resolution
magnification increases an object’s image size compared to its actual size while resolution measures the clarity of the image (mag=size, res=clarity)
van leeuwenhoek
observed bacteria and protozoans, “Animacules”
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells, structurally
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles and prokaryotic cells smaller, lack a nucleus and no membrane bound organelles, always have cell wall
smooth er
site of lipid synthesis, manufacturing/distribution/breakdown
flagellum
extension of the plasma membrane that provides motility
mitochondria
site of cellular respiration which generates the cell’s energy , energy processing
microvilli
increases surface area of the cell to enhance absorption and secretion
nucleolus
produces (synthesizes) the 2 subunits that compose ribosomes according to DNA instructions, genetic control
nucleus
houses instructions (which never leave this structure) for all cellular activities, site of transcription (DNA into RNA), genetic control
rough er
covered in ribosomes, finishes proteins before sending them to the golgi apparatus, manufacturing/distribution/breakdown
ribosomes
site of protein synthesis, MDB
golgi apparatus
involved in packaging materials for shipment out of the cell or to other organelles, MDB
plasma membrane
controls passive and active transport of materials into and out of the cell, enter/exit, protect cell, support/movement/communication
vesicle
buds off the ER or golgi apparatus containing materials destined for other organelles or out of the cell
genetic control
nucleus, nucleolus
MDB
SER, RER, ribosome, lysosome, vacuole, golgi apparatus, peroxisome
support/movement/communication
cell membrane, cell wall, plasmodesmata, centrosome, cytoskeleton
energy processing
chloroplast, mitochondria
centrosome
aids in cell division using microtubules to attach to and pull apart chromatids (chromosomes), SMC
cell wall
outer covering that protects and provides skeletal support for a plant cell, SMC
plasmodesmata
channels connecting adjacent plant cells for sharing materials, SMC
cytoskeleton
network of fibers that provide structural support inside a cell, SMC
RER
rough variety has ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) attached, packages proteins and lipids into vesicles to send to the golgi apparatus, Manufactures secretory proteins- enzymes for digestion such as lipase, Site of protein quality checks/recycling if incorrect, Vesicles bud off of ER to carry products to the golgi apparatus, MDB
SER
smooth variety stores enzymes, many of which are used for lipid production, Synthesizes oils, phospholipids, steroids, sex hormones, Contains enzymes for detoxification (high # in liver cells), Stores calcium for muscle contractions, MDB
ribosome
tiny structures that synthesize proteins according to genetic instructions, make proteins for use in the cell and for export, More proteins, more ribosomes, free in cytosol or bound to RER, MDB
lysosome
breaks down worn-out proteins or organelles at the end of their usefulness, recycles their mQs like recycling center, contains digestive enzymes, MDB
golgi apparatus
processing station for products of the ER, accepts ER vesicles, modifies contents, packages, and ships in new vesicles, MDB
vacuole
stores nutrients and waste products, provides pressure necessary for the shape of a plant cell and cells to stack on top of one another, MDB
peroxisome
metabolic compartments that do not originate from the endomembrane system, MDB
mitochondria
site of generating the cells energy, has its own independent genome (DNA), cellular respiration, energy processing
chloroplast
site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll mQs and its own genome (DNA), energy processing
how are the structures of animal and plant cells similar/different
Plant cell- cell wall, chloroplast, central vacuole, animal cells- lysosomes and centrosomes, both- mitochondria, cell membrane, and nucleus
What is the composition of the plasma membrane of a cell? What is meant by a phospholipid bilayer? Why are the phospholipids arranged in this way?
Polar heads sticking out because water is surrounding it and polar heads deter water, non-polar tails in middle of phospholipid bilayer
why is the plasma membrane referred to as a fluid mosaic model
fluid mosaic depicts the membrane as a mosaic of protein mQs suspended in a fluid bilayer of phospholipid mQs- different parts all working together
attachment protein
proteins that attach to the ECM and cytoskeleton help support the membrane and can coordinate external and internal changes, plasma membrane
receptor protein
bind signaling mQs and relay the message by activating other mQs in the cell (signal transduction), plasma membrane
channel transport protein
lets water or small ions through quickly
active transport protein
transport proteins allow specific ions or mQs to enter or exit the cell
junction protein
membrane proteins may form intercellular junctions that attach adjacent cells
glycoprotein
may serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells
active vs passive transport
active uses ATP for movement against concentration gradient while passive no ATP and with concentration gradient
substance using passive transport
small mQs, water, glucose, amino acids
substance using active transport
contents leaving- waste, proteins, Sodium-potassium, things in like cholestrol
simple diffusion ex
CO2
facilitated diffusion ex
glucose, H+
osmosis
diffusion of water
pinocytosis
cell drinking
phagocytosis
cell eating
exocytosis
contents moved out of celle
endocytosis
contents moved into cell
Why is dialysis tubing useful in modeling membrane transport? What substance(s) moved/did not move across the dialysis tubing and why?
No starch moved through because it was too big, IKI was small enough to move through, diffused from Hi concentration in beaker to lower concentration in dialysis tubing, with concentration gradient, simple diffusion
What is demonstrated by placing an egg in Karo syrup? Distilled water?
Corn syrup 25% H\2O- egg shrank because hypertonic environment, water 100% H\2O egg grew because hypotonic environment
How does salt water affect plant cells? Why?
In saltwater, the water leaves the cell (hypertonic) and goes to the saltwater, shrinking the cell size vs Freshwater, isotonic environment so cells stay hydrated and full
What is turgor pressure? Why do animal cells not exhibit turgor pressure?
Ideal for plant cells to be turgid because of cell wall, animal cells do not have cell wall, Turgidity- condition of being bloated, distended, or swollen due to absorption of high fluid content
What is tonicity? How does a cell (plant, animal) respond in an isotonic/hypertonic/hypotonic solution?
Tonicity- Comparison of solute to solvent inside/outside cell, Plant/animal cell in isotonic- nothing happens because solute amount same inside and outside cell, Plant hypertonic- loses water, shrivels, plasmolysis (plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall), Plant hypotonic- gains H2O and is turgid (normal & healthy), Animal hypertonic- cell shrivels and dies from water loss, Animal hypotonic- cell gains water, swells, may burst (lyse)
What are examples of where tonicity matters to living organisms?
No drinking saltwater, spray water in veggies, Contact solution, Man stranded on island, Dehydrated person needing hypo, Saltwater vs freshwater fish, Sports drinks hydrate isotonically
Why is water considered to be a polar molecule?
The unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms and the unsymmetrical shape of the molecule- positive H negative O
How are lipids and proteins structurally and functionally unique? What are examples of these biomolecules and their use by organisms?
proteins made up of one or more amino acid (H-N-H), lipids in fats, oils, waxes, hormones and are triglyceride
lipid parts
triglyceride- glycerol plus 3 fatty acids (unsaturated or saturated), in cheese, olive oil, milk
protein parts
amino group (NH2), peptide bone (C-N), carboxyl group (COOH), and R which varies cause amino acid, in eggs, chicken, turkey
essential amino acid
cannot be made by body, from food (eggs, nuts, meats), 9/20 amino acids are essential amino acids
Why does structure matter for a protein’s function?
determines whether the protein can interact with other mQs
How does a saturated fat differ from an unsaturated fat? Why are unsaturated fats considered to be healthier? How is a trans fat made? Why are they the unhealthiest fat?
unsaturated has double bonds, healthier, bent, all unlike saturated. transfat made by adding hydrogen to veggie oil and causes high levels of LDL cholestrol which clogs arteries
dehydration synthesis with proteins and lipids
water removed to form peptide bond btwn carbon and nitrogen
What type of bond links together amino acids into polypeptide chains? What type of bond links together glycerol and fatty acids?
amino and poly- covalent peptide bond, glycerol and fatty- ester bond
thousands of proteins from amino acids
thousands of combos from 21 amino acids
What role does the stomach/small intestine/large intestine/pancreas play in digestion?
stomach- food storage, physical breakdown, digestion of protein, small intestine- absorbing digested nutrients into bloodstream, large intestine- absorbs whatever is left over, pancreas- produces 4 classes of digestive enzymes (amylases, proteases, nucleases, lipases) and secretes insulin
What is the path of food through the digestive system?
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
Why do we make bile? What organ do we store bile in, but rats do not have?
make bile to aid in digesting fat and store in gallbladder
bulk feeders
mostly animals including humans
4 stages of digestion
ingestion (mechanical), digestion (chem then mech), absorption, elimination
Even without gravity, food will move through the alimentary canal. How?
peristalsis- muscle contractions that move food through canal
why shorter intestine large intestine
5cm in diameter (2x wide as small)
kidneys
filter blood by elimating nitrogenous wastes produced during breakdown of proteins, regulate water balance, pH, and ionic composition of the body fluids
bladder
collects and stores urine
whre does urine exit
urethra
sperm created and what tube do they exit
created in testicles, (epididymis collects and stores) exit urethra
where are eggs created
ovaries
where do fertilized eggs implant and develop in female rat
duplex uterus
Esophagus
Site of peristalsis
Cardiac sphincter
Bottom of esophagus
Pyloric sphincter
Stomach and duodenum
Duodenum
First part of the small intestine where chemical digestion is completed
Jejunum and ileum
Lower parts of the small intestine where nutrient absorption happens and re absorption of water via osmosis
Ileocecal sphincter
End of ileum
Cecum
Holding tank for chyme at the beginning of the large intestine/colon
Colon
Site of continued water absorption and formation of feces
Rectum
Holding tank for feces before elimination
