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AP Psychology > Sem. 1 - Unit 3 > Flashcards

Sem. 1 - Unit 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Sensation

A

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

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2
Q

Sensory receptors

A

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

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3
Q

Perception

A

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

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4
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

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5
Q

Top-down processing

A

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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6
Q

selective attention

A

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

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7
Q

inattentional blindness

A

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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8
Q

change blindness

A

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

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9
Q

transduction

A

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

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10
Q

psychophysics

A

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

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11
Q

absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

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12
Q

signal detection theory

A

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

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13
Q

subliminal

A

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

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14
Q

difference threshold

A

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd)

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15
Q

priming

A

used to activate unconscious associations

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16
Q

weber’s law

A

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

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17
Q

sensory adaptation

A

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

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18
Q

explain how selective attention directs our perceptions

A

by focusing conscious awareness on a specific stimulus, filtering out other stimuli from our immediate awareness​.

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19
Q

explains the difference between absolute and difference thresholds; weber’s law

A

Absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus detectable 50% of the time, while the difference threshold is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, with Weber’s law stating that this difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity​​.

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20
Q

Describe how we are influenced by subliminal stimuli

A

Subliminal stimuli, though below our conscious awareness, can subtly influence our thoughts, attitudes, or behaviors without us actively noticing or remembering the stimulus​​.

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21
Q

explain the function of sensory adaptation

A

reduces our sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time, allowing us to focus on changes in our environment that may be more important for survival​.

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22
Q

perceptual set

A

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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23
Q

extrasensory perception (ESP)

A

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

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24
Q

parapsychology

A

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

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25
Q

telepathy

A

supposed ability to transmit thoughts or feelings directly from one person’s mind to another without using any known sensory channels.

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26
Q

clairvoyance

A

laimed ability to gain information about an object, person, or event without using the known human senses or prior knowledge.

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27
Q

psychokinesis/telekinesis

A

purported ability to move or manipulate objects solely through the power of the mind, without any physical interaction.

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28
Q

precognition

A

alleged ability to perceive or predict future events before they occur, without any inference from current knowledge.

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29
Q

explain how are expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions

A

by creating a mental framework that biases how we interpret sensory information, often making us more likely to notice or interpret stimuli in ways that align with our current state or experiences​.

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30
Q

understand the claims of ESP, and what most research psychologists have concluded after testing these claims

A

Claims of ESP (extrasensory perception) include abilities like telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis, but most research psychologists have concluded that scientific evidence for ESP is lacking and that these phenomena are not reliably demonstrated under controlled experimental conditions​​.

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31
Q

wavelength

A

the distance from one wave peak to the next

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32
Q

hue

A

the color we experience

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33
Q

intensity

A

the amount of energy the wave contains. Intensity influences brightness

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34
Q

cornea

A

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

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35
Q

pupil

A

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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36
Q

iris

A

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

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37
Q

lens

A

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

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38
Q

retina

A

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

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39
Q

rods

A

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond

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40
Q

accommodation

A

To focus the rays, the lens changes its curvature and thickness in a process called accommodation

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40
Q

cones

A

retinal receptors that are Concentrated near the Center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to Color sensations.

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41
Q

optic nerve

A

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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42
Q

blind spot

A

an area with no receptor cells, where the optic nerve leaves the eye

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43
Q

fovea

A

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

44
Q

young-helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

A

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

45
Q

opponent process theory

A

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

46
Q

feature detectors

A

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

47
Q

parallel processing

A

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.

48
Q

monochromatism (lecture)

A

complete color blindness in which all colors appear as shades of gray.

49
Q

dichromatism (lecture)

A

someone can only perceive two primary colors (and combinations of those colors) rather than the usual three (red, green, and blue).

50
Q

farsightedness and nearsightedness (lecture)

A

Farsightedness makes it hard to see things that are close, and nearsightedness makes it difficult to see things that are far away

controlled by the lens

51
Q

prospagnosia (lecture)

A

Prosopagnosia is classically defined as an inability to recognize faces of people known to the patient

51
Q

Describe the two theories on why we perceive color.

A

opponent process theory and young-helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

52
Q

Explain where feature detectors are located and what they do.

A

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

53
Q

gestalt

A

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

54
Q

figure-ground

A

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

55
Q

groupings

similarity, proximity, closure, symmetry, common fate, ect.

A

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

56
Q

depth perception

A

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

57
Q

visual cliff

A

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

58
Q

binocular cue

A

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

59
Q

retinal disparity

A

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

60
Q

monocular cues: Relative height, relative size, linear perspective, relative clarity, motion parallax, interposition, etc.

A
61
Q

phi phenomenon

A

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

62
Q

visual illusions: ames room, pnozo illusion, Muller-Lyer illusion

A
63
Q

perceptual constancy

A

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

a top down process

64
Q

color constancy

A

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

65
Q

shape constancy

A

perceiving familiar objects as havng a consistent shape, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

66
Q

perceptual adaptation

A

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

67
Q

McGurk effect

A

The McGurk Effect is an auditory-visual illusion that illustrates how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses. For example, when we hear the sound “ba” while seeing the face of a person articulate “ga,” many adults perceive the sound “da,” a third sound which is a blend of the two.

68
Q

stroop effect

A

The Stroop effect is our tendency to experience difficulty naming a physical color when it is used to spell the name of a different color.

69
Q

apparent movement (lecture)

A

the sensation of seeing movement when nothing actually moves in the environment, as when two neighbouring lights are switched on and off in rapid succession.

70
Q

Explain how the Gestalt psychologists understand perceptual organization, and how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions.

A
71
Q

Explain how perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions.

A
72
Q

Describe how we use binocular and monocular cues to see in three dimensions, and how we perceive motion.

A
73
Q

Explain what research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveal about the effects on restored perception.

A
74
Q

frequency

A

pitch/tone

75
Q

pitch

A

short wavelength = high frequency (high pitch)

long wavelength = low frequency (low pitch)

76
Q

middle ear

A

the tiny bones that vibrate

77
Q

auditory canal/ear canal

A

where sound travels through first

78
Q

tympanic membrane/eardrum

A

thin layer of tissue that vibrates in response to sound waves

79
Q

malleas, incus, stapes/hammer, anvil, stirrup

A

ossicles, they transfer the sound wave vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea

80
Q

oval window

A

membrane covered opening of the cochlea. It vibrates when it receives the sound waves and causes the fluid inside the cochlea to move

81
Q

cochlea

A

coiled, bony, fluid filled tube in the inner ear. Sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

82
Q

basilar membrane

A

membrance where the hair cells line the surface

83
Q

hair cells

A

the hair cell movements in turn trigger impulses in adjacent nerve cells, whose axons converge to form the auditory nerve

84
Q

inner ear

A

auditory nerve, cochlea, ect?

85
Q

sensorineural hearing loss

A

most common type of hearing loss

damage is to the cochleas hair cell receptors or the auditory nerve can be helped with cochlea implant

86
Q

conduction hearing loss

A

damage to the mechanicla system-the eardrum and middle ear bones- that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

less common

87
Q

cochlear implant

A

translates sounds into electrical signals that are transmitted to the cochlea and, via the auditory nerve, relayed to the brain

88
Q

place theory

A

pitch is determined by what part or “place” of the cochlea bsilar membrance is stimulated (good for HIGH-PITCHED)

89
Q

frequency theory

A

Basilar membrance fires to brain the same frequency of incoming sound wave (LOW PITCH)

90
Q

Describe the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound.

A
91
Q

Explain how the ear transforms sound energy into neural messages.

A
92
Q

Explain how we detect loudness, discriminate pitch, and locate sounds.

A
93
Q

Gate control theory

A

the blocking or allowing of pain throught the spinal chord to the brain

94
Q

gustation

A

the perception of sensations that are usually described as having 1 or more basic taste qualities: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, or umami (savory/brothy)

95
Q

sweet/sour/salty/bitter/umami/ oleogustus (lecture)

A

gustation

96
Q

supertasters and medium tasters (lecture)

A

medium-taster who has an average ability to sense different flavors. Along these lines, supertasters are those who experience taste with far greater intensity than most others.

97
Q

olfaction

A

the sense of smell

98
Q

pheromones (lecture)

A

smells that make you act or want something ?

99
Q

kinesthesia

A

persons awareness of the position and movement of the parts of the. body by means of sensory organs

100
Q

vestibular sense

A

our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

101
Q

sensory interaction

A

the mixing of senses

102
Q

embodied congnitin

A

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

103
Q

synethesia

A

ex hearing colors

104
Q

Explain how we sense touch.

A

pressure, hot, cold, pain

105
Q

Describe how biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences affect our experiences with pain, and how placebos and distractions help control pain.

A
106
Q

Describe how our sense of taste and our sense of smell are similar and different.

A
107
Q

Explain how we sense our body’s position and movement.
o Explain how sensory interaction influences our perceptions.

A

AP Psychology (4 decks)

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