Sem. 1 - Unit 4

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

the process of acquiring though new and relatively enduring information of behaviors

Question 2

habituation

Answer 2

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

Question 3

associative learning

Answer 3

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Question 4

stimulus

Answer 4

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 5

respondent behavior

Answer 5

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 6

operant behavior

Answer 6

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Question 7

cognitive behavior

Answer 7

how people process and use info to make decisions and respond to situations which involve thinking, problemsolving, and decision-making

Question 8

respondent behavior

Answer 8

automatic reflexive responses to specific stimuli, often without conscious thought

Question 9

operant behavior

Answer 9

behavior controlled by its consequences such as rewards or punishments

Question 10

cognitive learning

Answer 10

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Question 11

classical conditioning

Answer 11

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

Question 12

behavirorism

Answer 12

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Question 13

neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 13

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

ex.) tuning fork

Question 14

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 14

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)

ex.) salvation

Question 15

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 15

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response

ex.) food

Question 16

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 16

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

ex.) salvation

Question 17

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 17

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

ex.) tuning fork

Question 18

acquisition

Answer 18

(initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship)

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 19

higher-order conditioning

Answer 19

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Question 20

extinction

Answer 20

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Question 21

spontaneous recovery

Answer 21

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 22

generalization

Answer 22

(tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS)

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.

Question 23

discrimination

Answer 23

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Question 24

operant conditioning

Answer 24

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Question 25

law of effect

Answer 25

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 26

operant chamber

Answer 26

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Question 27

reinforcement

Answer 27

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Question 28

shaping

Answer 28

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 29

discriminative stimulus

Answer 29

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Question 30

positive reinforcement

Answer 30

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 31

negative reinforcement

Answer 31

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 32

primary reinforcer

Answer 32

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 33

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 33

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Question 34

reinforcement schedule

Answer 34

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 35

continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 35

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 36

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Answer 36

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 37

fixed ratio schedule

Answer 37

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 38

fixed interval schedule

Answer 38

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 39

positive punishment

Answer 39

administer a unwanted stimulus to decrease the behavior

Question 40

negative punishment

Answer 40

withdraw a wanted stimulus to decrease the behavior

Question 41

biofeedback

Answer 41

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Question 42

preparedness

Answer 42

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

Question 43

instinctive drift

Answer 43

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Question 44

cognitive map

Answer 44

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Question 45

latent learning

Answer 45

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 46

insight

Answer 46

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Question 47

intrinsic motivation

Answer 47

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Question 48

extrinsic motivation

Answer 48

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 49

problem focused coping

Answer 49

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Question 50

emotion focused coping

Answer 50

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

Question 51

personal control

Answer 51

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

Question 52

learned helplessness

Answer 52

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 53

external locus of control

Answer 53

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Question 54

internal locus of control

Answer 54

the perception that we control our own fate

Question 55

self-control

Answer 55

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Question 56

observational learning

Answer 56

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Question 57

modeling

Answer 57

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 58

mirror neurons

Answer 58

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Question 59

prosocial behavior

Answer 59

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.