Self & Gender

Question 1

Self 2-4 months

Answer 1

Self as agent

Attach mobile to baby leg

Question 2

Self 8mo

Answer 2

Separation anxiety

Self as separate from caregiver

Question 3

Self 12mo

Answer 3

Joint attention emerges
Self vs. Others
Self still doesn’t transcend time/situations

Question 4

Development of me self

Answer 4

18mo
Reflection of attributes rather than subjective state
Developed through direct observation of attributes and interaction with others
Test using rouge test

Question 5

Rouge test

Answer 5

15-18mo - 25% wiped face
21-24mo 70% wiped face

The development of the ability at 18-24mo is due to self awareness and other awareness (empathy, cooperation etc)

Question 6

Contingency testing

Answer 6

Doing different actions in the mirror to see if it is yourself

Question 7

Secondary representations

Answer 7

Rouge test
Mirror image - primary
Linking self with image - secondary

Require cognitions that transcend time

Question 8

Synchronic imitation

Answer 8

Imitating others at the same time

Requires other awareness

Question 9

Amended rouge test method

Answer 9

Increases validity
Many children classified as ambiguous (touched wrong part of face)

Play with doll first and ask them to wipe rouge of doll’s face so child understands

Question 10

Amended rouge test results

Answer 10

Immediate recognisers same for amended and traditional test
Number of ambiguous recognisers lower in amended test
16% of delayed recognisers were missed in traditional (prompted)
Girls recognise 78% and boys 54%

Question 11

Amended rouge test imitation results

Answer 11

Recognisers didn’t imitate more than non recognisers
Recognisers engaged in more sustained imitation
Delayed recognisers showed same imitation to immediate recognisers

Original rouge test had high false negative rate

Question 12

Self during second year

Answer 12

Language shows use of personal pronouns (me)
Assertive behaviour - testing boundaries
Expression of complex emotions
Parent construction of self ‘you’re clever’ encourages this
Self as an agent reaches peak (terrible twos)

Question 13

Complex emotions

Answer 13

Embarrassment, pride, guilt, shame

Self conscious because they relate to sense of self and others’ perceptions of us

Possibly due to increased expectation of child (having to learn rules)

Question 14

Ragdoll experiment method

Answer 14

Tests complex emotion expression

Ragdoll who’s limb is rigged to fall off
Observe child’s reaction and then if they tell experimenter

Question 15

Ragdoll experiment results

Answer 15

Subtle differences:
Shame - delayed telling, avoidance (focus on self)
Guilt - attempt to repair, told immediately (empathy for others)

Correlated with the way children are reprimanded by parents

E.g. ‘You’re a bad girl’ or ‘it’s not kind to break it they are sad now’

Question 16

Self metarepresentation

Answer 16

Understand mental states of others and self
2yo
Associated with shift from self directed to other directed play
Associated with increase use of personal pronouns and pretend play
Children who use pretend play more likely to recognise self in mirror

Requires secondary representations without having it in front of you (pretend play)

Question 17

Self beyond second year

Answer 17

Concrete observable characteristics - “I can run fast”

Comparative assessment - “I don’t do well in maths”

Question 18

Self in adolescence

Answer 18

Abstract thinking
Mainly interpersonal
Variety of selves in different situations e.g. with friends, parents

Question 19

Self esteem

Answer 19

Overall evaluation of self worth
Low self esteem in childhood = behavioural difficulties

SES, culture and genetics also influence it

Question 20

Process of gay identity

Answer 20

First recognition (middle childhood)
Test and exploration (adolescence)
Identity and acceptance
Identity integration

Question 21

Why do children hide by closing their eyes?

Answer 21

2-4yo
Say that people can’t see them parts of their body are visible
Dualistic idea - physical body different to self

When they avert gaze they think they are hidden also
Joint attention may be required to feel visible

Question 22

Sex vs. Gender

Answer 22

Sex - biological origins for differences in male and female

Gender - social categorisation of male or female

Question 23

Baby X

Answer 23

Dressed baby neutrally with gendered toys and told participants it was a boy or a girl

Found that people treated it differently based on which gender label they thought it was e.g. girls pretty, boys strong

Question 24

Gender knowledge 6-9mo

Answer 24

Distinguish male and female voices

Notice intermodal violation (look longer at male face with female voice)

Question 25

Gender knowledge 18mo

Answer 25

Gender expectations
Look at certain objects longer (car/doll) after seeing male or female

Are more surprised when doll comes after a boy

Question 26

Gender knowledge 2-2.5yo

Answer 26

Gender classification

Can sort photos based on gender

Can indicate gender matched toys

Question 27

Gender knowledge 3yo

Answer 27

Gender knowledge reflected in language

Self-categorisation

Question 28

Gender in preschool and primary school

Answer 28

Gender segregation
Gender-typed play
Children who violate gender norms are avoided
More important for boys not to be caught playing with girl stuff

Question 29

Biological factors of sex identification

Answer 29

Evolved due to adaptive and reproductive advantages
Females cooperative may be related to childcare
Role of hormones and neurobiology

Question 30

Extreme male brain theory of sex

Answer 30

Females empathisers, males systemiser

Evidence
Biological - testosterone negatively correlated with eye contact
Birth - girls watch face, boys watch mobile
12mo - girls make more eye contact
Different toy choices and type of aggression

Question 31

Social learning theory of sex

Answer 31

Use observation to learn about gender roles
Spend more time with same sex parent and imitate them
Socialised in the home by toys offered and chore assignment
Lower levels of sex stereotyping associated with working mum
Indirect socialisation - television

HOWEVER imitation requires level of cognitive understanding of gender categories which isn’t offered in this theory.

Question 32

Kohlberg theory of gender development

Answer 32

Gender Identity - 30mo - label self

Gender Stability - 3/4yo - gender is stable but use superficial cues (boy is a girl if they have long hair)

Gender Consistency - 5/7yo - gender constant across situations

Once gender is consistent same sex role models are sought out

Question 33

Evaluation of Kohlberg

Answer 33

Complements biological and social theories
Says gender identity is crucial for sex-role identification
Children imitate because they realise their gender does certain things

BUT why are gender specific behaviours observed prior to gender identity (must be earlier knowledge than this accounts for)

Question 34

Maccoby’s Synthesis

Answer 34

Gender segregation - children seek out same sex peers
Same sex playmate because they are similar to themselves
Social pressures come mainly from peers (bullying)
Adult influence in the form of interaction style
More pleasure from same sex group which reinforces it

Considers cognitive and social factors

Question 35

Gender dysphoria

Answer 35

Gender at birth different to gender they identify with

In DSM but argument that it increases pressure for conformity

Question 36

Transgender

Answer 36

Gender at birth doesn’t match genetic sex

Can identify as one, neither or both genders