Reading Flashcards
Granularity
How much of the word is represented by one character
Orthographic transparency
How consistently the letters match the sounds
Types of words
Regular, irregular, nonwords
Phonological awareness components
Syllabic awareness
Onset rime awareness
Awareness of phonemes
Measuring syllabic awareness
Tapping task - tap for number of syllables
Same different - puppet who likes similar syllables
Blending - blend two syllables together (sis - ter)
Counting - put out counters for number of syllables
Age of syllabic awareness
Awareness at 5yo Fully developed at 6yo Developed 50% before then Even 3yo can do it a bit (Lieberman et al., 1974)
Measuring onset rime
Oddity task - which word is odd one out
Same different (bun, bus - onset) (spit/wit rime)
Blending
Segmentation - opposite of blending/splitting them up
Complete nursery rhymes
Onset Rime definition
Dividing one syllable words into onsets and rimes
B - onse At - rime (bat)
Onset - initial consonant or cluster
Rimes - vowels and consonants that follow
Age of onset rime
Oddity task - 4/5yo performed above chance
3yo show awareness when using nursery rhymes
Fully developed at 7yo
Phoneme awareness definition
Knowledge of relationship between grapheme and phoneme (letters and sounds).
Doesn’t develop without teaching.
Harder with low orthographic transparency.
Measuring phoneme awareness
Counting - number of phonemes
Tapping - number of phonemes
Same different - (steak/sponge - ‘s’)
Oddity task - odd one out
TREIMAN AND ZUKOWSKI (1991)
Method:
Same different task
Tested syllable, onset rime and phoneme awareness
Results:
Awareness of syllables by 5yo
Onset rime awareness younger but not fully developed til 7yo.
Phoneme awareness slow to develop until 7yo.
Bradley and Bryant (1983) - phonological awareness predicting future
Developed 50% before then
400 4 and 5yo
Follow up at 8 and 9yo
Higher oddity task means higher spelling and reading scores.
Could have been due to SES and book amount (High SES 13 per child).
Chall’s stages of reading development (1979)
Stage 0 (Birth/6yo) - acquire key prerequisites, letters of alphabet and phoneme awareness.
Stage 1 (6/7yo) - phonological recoding, can translate letters into sounds and blend them.
Stage 2 (7/8yo) - fluency in reading simple material.
Stage 3 (9/13yo) - acquire complex info from text and learn from reading.
Stage 4 (13/18yo) - skilled in understanding new information from multiple perspectives.
Frith’s reading stage model - names of stages and ages
Logographic (Birth - 7/8yo)
Alphabetic (7/8 - 9/10yo)
Orthographic (9/10yo+)
Logographic
Recognises the word by how it looks (salient features)
Instant recognition
No decoding
Confuse words that look similar (as/descender)
Can’t read new words or non words
Can recognise words they have seen before
Alphabetic
Learn letter/sound mappings (grapheme phoneme).
Develop phoneme awareness
Decode familiar/nonwords
Regularise irregular words
Can read new regular words (decode letters>sounds).
Read new irregular words but may regularise them
Can read non-words
Can read words they’ve seen before
Orthographic
Identify words using larger units (chunking) of word/spelling patterns (-ight or -ing).
Can read irregular words and non words by comparing to others already known.
Some irregular words can’t be compared so need to be learned (yacht).
Non words
Testing ability to read non words:
Allows examination of awareness of grapheme/phoneme correspondences (how well they know which letters make which sounds).
Examines use of alphabetic and orthgraphic stages.
Comparing Frith & Chall
Chall: 5 stages Skilled reader at 13/18yo (comprehension) No info on different processes Phonological recoding at 7yo Acquire phoneme awareness before 6yo Doesn't consider individual differences
Frith:
3 stages
Skilled reader 10/11yo (verbalise written words)
Info on different processes (clearer how they read)
Phonological recoding at 7yo
Acquire phoneme awareness at 6/7 - 9/10yo
Considers individual differences
Research: some suggest phoneme awareness develops before 6yo but is skilled at 7yo (Treiman & Zukowski, 1991).
Criticism of phased models
Goswami & Bryant (1990):
Not a causal process.
Development of skills doesn’t happen one after the other (all skills develop at same time).
Even young children use analogy reading (similar to onset rime awareness).
Flashcards description
Full words
Ask child to read word
Allow reading for meaning
Encourages logographic stage (no encouragement for decoding but instead recognise and read whole word)
Flashcards for Frith’s stages
Logographic: full words as before.
Alphabetic: single letters and ask to make associated sound.
Orthographic - provide chunks of words and ask to read.
Benefits of flashcards
Encourages rapid word recognition which can help with reading at later stages (Tan & Nicholson, 1997).
Low orthographic transarency in English means lots of words are hard to decode using grapheme phoneme knowledge.
Encourage learning of frequently used words.
Tan & Nicholson (1997) - below average readers
42 below average readers (7 and 10yo)
Single word training, phase training or no training.
Trained children learned to decode target words quickly and accurately using flascards.
Untrained children only discussed target words and read them once.
Children read aloud passages containing target words and tested on comprehension.
Trained had better comprehension that untrained.
EMPHASIS ON RAPID WORD RECOGNITION BENEFITS POOR READERS.
Issues with flashcards
50k words in English can’t be learned this way.
Full word flashcards only good for logographic.
Could remove fun from reading.
Alternative: phonemic-awareness training (Bradley & Bryant, 1983).
Bradley & Bryant (1983) - phonemic-awareness training
Phoneme training (phoneme/grapheme conversion) and put together plastic letters and identify rime.
Phoneme training only.
No training.
Children trained on both rime and phoneme were significantly better on retest.
Hawthorne Effect
Children’s reading improves purely due to one-to-one reading with an adult and not due to intervention.
Important to include control group to account for it like Bradley and Bryant (1983).
