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BCBA > section 6 - measurement > Flashcards

section 6 - measurement Flashcards

1
Q

3 dimensional quantities

A
  1. repeatability: count, rate/freq, celeration (e.g. # per min per week)
  2. temporal extent: duration
  3. temporal locus: response latency, inter-response time
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2
Q

3 dimensional quantities:

  1. repeatability: countability
A
  • when B can be counted
  • INSTANCES of a RESPONSE CLASS (i.e. share same function) occur repeatedly through time

3 types of repeatability measures

a. count:
- most useful when observation time is CONSTANT.
- NOT enough info to make decisions abt interventions

b. rate/frequency: count/time
- most popular data methods
- useful when recording FREE OPERANT: Bx have discrete beginning & ending points
- NOT useful when recording Bx that occur ONLY within limited/restricted conditions (e.g. discrete trial data, trials measured by opportunities)
- NOT use when measuring CONTINUOUS Bx that occur for extended period of time
- per sec, min, day, week, month, year
- report the UNIT OF TIME
- unit of time must be standard within the study, so can compare 2 rates

c. celeration
- count per unit of time/time (i.e. frequency/time)
- measures how rates of response change over time
- acceleration: rates of response accelerate when responding is FASTER over time
- deceleration: rates of response decelerate when responding is SLOWER over time
- at least 7 measures of rate
- response RATE displays on the VERTICAL axis
- time in days displays on the HORIZONTAL axis
- CELERATION TREND LINE: a STRAIGHT line drawn through the graphed data representing the DIRECTION & DEGREE of the trend

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3
Q

3 dimensional quantities:

  1. temporal extent: duration
A
  • when the duration of a B can be measured
  • every instance of B occurs during some amount of time
  • use duration when:
    • wanna measure the AMOUNT OF TIME of a B
    • Bx that occur for too long/short a period of time
    • HIGH RATE Bx
    • e.g. rocking, on-task, humming
  1. total duration per SESSION: the cumulative amount of time a person engages in the target B in the TOTAL SESSION
  2. duration per OCCURRENCE: duration of time that EACH instance of the B
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4
Q

3 dimensional quantities:

  1. temporal locus:
A
  • measures the TIME at which B occurs: when an instance of B occurs with respect to other events
  • locus: POINT in time
  1. response latency: time between onset of a stimulus & initiation of a response
    • use when wanna measure how much time occurs between an OPPORTUNITY to emit a B & when the B is INITIATED
  2. inter-response time (IRT): amount of time that elapses between 2 CONSECUTIVE INSTANCES of a response class
    • use IRT when time between responses is important
    • reported by MEAN, MEDIAN, RANGE of IRT per SESSION
    • functionally related to rate of response
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5
Q

2 derivative measures

A
  1. percentage
    • RATIO: combining the same dimensional quantities =, such as count
    • express the PROPORTIONAL quantity of some event in terms of the # of times the event occurred per 100 OPPORTUNITIES that the event could have occurred
      - at least 30 observation intervals/response opportunities
      - advantage: when document the percentage of correct response
      - disadvantage:
      • NO dimensional value
      • has lower & upper limits on the data
      • can NOT record PROFICIENCY / FLUENCY
        * *NOT correct to claim improvement over 100% occurred**
  2. trials to criterion
    - measure the # of response OPPORTUNITIES needed to achieve a PREDETERMINED level of performance criteria
    - a trial depends on the nature of target B & the desired performance level
    - can use: count, rate, duration, latency to determine trials to criterion data
    - use to COMPARE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY of 2 or more treatments
    - use for assessing a learner’s INCREASING COMPETENCE in acquiring a related class of concepts
    - use for skills such as shoe tying:
    • each opportunity to tie shoe can be considered a trial –> trials to criterion data reports the # of TRIALS required for the learner to tie shoe correctly
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6
Q

2 definitional measures

A
  1. topography
    - FORM/SHAPE of the response
    - use when FORM of the B is critical
    - e.g. basketball, dancing, etc.
    - malleable 有延展性的 dimension of B= responses of VARYING form are SHAPED & SELECTED by their consequences
    - topography can be different but with SAME FUNCTION
  2. magnitude
    - force/intensity/severity of B
    - certain responses need to be emitted at SPECIFIC LEVELS OF INTENSITY
    e. g. volume of voice
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7
Q

3 procedures for measuring B

A
  1. event recording (continuous measurement procedure)
  2. timing (continuous)
  3. time sampling (DIScontinuous)
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8
Q
  1. event recording (continuous measurement procedure)
A
  • record the # of TIMES a response occurs
  • device: pencil & paper, wrist counters, hand tally, digital counters, masking tape, pennies, buttons, calculators, etc.

advantage

  • fairly accurate
  • simple to implement (while engaging in other activities)
  • good to use with FREE OPERANT Bx (each response has a discrete beginning & end)

disadvantage
- NOT use when responses occur at very HIGH rate (e.g. hand flapping), CONTINUOUS Bx (e.g. on task B), discrete trial training (DTT) data

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9
Q
  1. timing (continuous)
A
  • duration
  • response latency
  • interresponse time
  • device: stopwatch
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10
Q
  1. time sampling (DIScontinuous)

interval recording
discontinuous measurement system

A
  • recording B during intervals / at specific moments in time
  • gives APPROXIMATION of actual instances of B
  • how*
    1. divide the observation period into EQUAL intervals
    2. record the presence/absence of B within or at the end of each interval
  • advantage: good to record HIGH rate/CONTINUOUS Bx
  • disadvantage: NOT use when wanna record important but infrequent Bx.
    e. g. crawl out of baby crib once per week
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11
Q

continuous Bx vs. continuous measurement procedures

A

continuous Bx

  • NOT have a clear beginning & ending
  • NOT discrete
  • e.g. shouting, rocking, sucking
  • should use DIScountinuous measurement procedure. e.g. time sampling

continuous measurement procedures

  • ALL INSTANCES of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period
  • e.g. event recording, timing
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12
Q

3 forms of time sampling: measure continuous B/high rate B

A
  1. whole interval recording
  2. partial interval recording
  3. momentary time sampling
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13
Q
  1. whole interval recording
A
  • how*
    1. divide the observation period into EQUAL intervals
    2. at the END of each interval, record whether the B occurred THROUGHOUT the interval (if a B occurred but not for the entire interval, it is recorded as absence)
    3. report data in PERCENTAGE: percentage of total intervals that the targeted B occurred

advantage
- best to measure B you wanna INCREASE

disadvantage

  • NOT good when wanna DECREASE B: coz you are required to observe the B occurred throughout the entire interval
  • underestimated overall duration of the B
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14
Q
  1. partial interval recording
A
  • how*
    1. divide the observation period into EQUAL intervals
    2. at the END of each interval, record whether the B occurred AT ANY TIME during the interval
    3. report data in PERCENTAGE: percentage of total intervals that the targeted B occurred
  • represent the proportion of the entire observation period that the B occurred

advantage:

  • easy to measure MULTIPLE Bx concurrently
  • best to measure B wanna decrease.
  • e.g. rocking

disadvantage:

  • NOT good to use when wanna increase Bx
  • must observe the B occurred throughout the entire interval
  • overestimate overall duration of the B
  • underestimate rate of the B
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15
Q
  1. momentary time sampling
A
  • how*
    1. divide the observation period into EQUAL intervals
    2. at the END of each interval, record whether the B occurred at the END of the time interval ONLY
    3. report data in PERCENTAGE: percentage of total intervals that the targeted B occurred

advantage:
- do NOT have to continuously measure throughout the entire interval

disadvantage:

  • underestimated rate/occurrence of the B: much B is missed/unaccounted
  • to avoid missing B: should keep intervals short & observe frequently
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16
Q

planned activity check

placheck

A
  • for GROUPS
  • variation of momentary time sampling
    e. g. a teacher observes a GROUP of students at the END of each interval, records the TOTAL # OF STUDENTS engaged in the targeted activity
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17
Q

permanent product : outcome recording

A
  • measure B after it has occurred by measuring the EFFECTS the B produced on the environment
  • B produces a change in the environment that lasts LONG enough for measurement
  • EX POST FACTO measurement: measure after B has occurred
  • natural/contrived outcomes
  • contrived permanent outcomes: Bx do NOT have a DIRECT effect on the environment can be measured by permanent product through VIDEOTAPE, PHOTOGRAPHS, AUDIOTAPES

advantage:

  • practitioner is free to do other tasks
  • easier to observe inconveniently timed Bx. e.g. sleeping patterns
  • measurement may be more accurate, complete, continuous
  • facilitate data collection for IOA & treatment integrity
  • enable data collection for Bx with MULTIPLE response classes
  • reduce potential REACTIVITY (temporarily & is in response to an OBSERVER)

disadvantage:

  • responses accountable for producing a particular outcome may vary
    e. g. a student earns ‘A’ for an assignment: cannot tell how the student prepare & carry out the assignment

when to use:

  • only interest in the outcome of the Bx? or mediating Bx?
  • is real time measurement needed?
  • can it be measured by permanent products?

rules:
- each instance of the B must produce the SAME PERMANENT outcome
- permanent outcome can ONLY be produced by the target B, can NOT be produced by other Bx or other ppl
- contrived permanent outcome will not unduly 过度的 affect the B

  • recording equipment for contrived permanent product may cause a person act differently
  • obtrusive measurement can affect the environment, then affect the B
18
Q

select the right measurement system to obtain representative data given the dimensions of the behavior

A
  • *ethics**
  • should select a way to record data that provides the most ethical & valid depiction of the target B
  • does the B result in tangible product: counting/permanent product are good to use
    e. g. # of toy cars assembled
  • is the B transitory (i.e. feeling): event recording / time sampling may be better
19
Q

scheduling observation & recording period

A
  • *ethics**: validity (the method measures what it is supposed to measure)
  • elements to consider: time of day, days of the week, weather conditions, task assignments, physical/social surroundings, MOs…etc. –> make sure that these elements are EVENLY distributed throughout baseline, intervention, FU –> if not, cannot confidently interpret data
  • things to consider with FREQ of recording:
    • how freq should you record data & under what conditions
    • if wanna increase/decrease rate of B, use your VALIDLY-DEFINED objectives across standard time periods
    • if wanna shape NEW Bx or teach clients to differentiate 1 stimulus from another, use moment-to-moment/trial-by-trial data recording
  • things to consider with DURATION of recording phases:
    • can continue to assess data until the data become stable according to your pre-specified definition of stability
20
Q

data

A

primary material to guide & evaluate behavioral work

21
Q

3 indicators of trustworthy measurement

A
  1. validity
  2. accurary
  3. reliability
  • relative concepts
  • each can range from high to low
22
Q
  1. validity
A

3 elements:

a. DIRECTLY measuring socially sig. target B
b. measuring DIMENSION of the target B RELEVANT to the question/concern abt the B
c. ensure the data are representative of the B’s occurrence under conditions during TIMES that are most relevant to the concern abt the B

  • measurement has VAILIDITY when it yields data that directly relevant to the phenomenon measured & to the reasons for measuring it
23
Q

threats to measurement validity

A

validity is threatened by:

a. INdirect measurement
- secondhand / filtered info
- researcher measure a PROXY or stand-in for the actual B of interest
- useful when there’s NO direct access to the B of interest
- sometimes used to make inference abt PRIVATE EVENTS
- research is responsible to provide evidence that the event measured directly reflects sth abt the B for which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions
- DIRECT MEASURE of target Bx will always have more validity than INdirect measures

b. measure the WRONG dimension of the target B
- more threaten to validity than indirect measurement
- measurement artifacts

24
Q

3 causes of measurement artifacts

A
  1. discontinuous measurement: measurement in which some instances of the response class are NOT detected
    e. g. all time sampling methods are discontinuous–> cause artifacts
  2. poorly scheduled measurement periods: recording data on the B at a time that does NOT properly depict the B
    e. g. a B happens at 12pm, but data are recorded at 3pm
  3. insensitive &/or limiting measurement scales: a scale that imposes an ARTIFICIAL floor/ceiling on performance
    e. g. give a person 100-word passage to read in 1 min to test their oral reading fluency –> max. performance is 100 words per min
25
Q
  1. accuracy
A
  • the extent to which the observed value / quantitative label matches the TRUE value of an event
  • for sth to be considered a true value requires special/extraordinary precautions that ensure all possible sources of ERROR have been REMOVED
  • if measurement is not valid, accuracy is uncertain
26
Q

how to establish true values for accuracy measures

A
  • true value must be different than the measurement procedures used to obtain the observed values
  • when true value cannot be established, researchers must rely on RELIABILITY assessments & measure of IOA to evaluate the quality of their data
27
Q
  1. reliability
A
  • the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the SAME value when brought into REPEATED contact with the SAME state of nature
  • SAME RESULT REPEATEDLY
  • poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy & validity
  • CONSISTENT measurement
  • the closer the value obtained by repeated measurement, the more reliable they are
  • reliability doesn’t necessarily mean validity / accurary
28
Q

threats to accurary & reliability

A
  • human error
    a. poorly designed measurement systems
    b. inadequate observer training
    c. expectations abt what the data should look like
29
Q

a. poorly designed measurement systems

A
  • difficult & cumbersome measurement systems: # of participant to observe, # of Bx to record, duration of observation period/intervals
  • simplified systems minimize errors
30
Q

b. inadequate observer training

A

observers need EXPLICIT & SYSTEMATIC training

  1. select observers carefully
  2. train observers to a standard of competency
  3. provide ongoing training to minimize OBSERVER DRIFT
31
Q

observer drift

A
  • when observer UNKNOWINGLY alter the way they measure a B
  • UNINTENDED changes in the way data are collected may produce measurement error
  • occurs when observers have a shift in how they INTERPRET the definitions of the target B
  • the target B definitions DRIFT over time
  • how to minimize: RETRAIN observers & provide detailed feedback on the accuracy & reliability of measurement
32
Q

measurement bias

e.g. c. expectations abt what the data should look like

A
  • NONRANDOM measurement error
  • errors in measurement likely to be in 1 direction: over/underestimate the true value
  • EXPECTATION that a target B will occur under certain conditions / change with certain treatment can influence what is recorded & threaten the accuracy of measurement
  • NAIVE OBSERVERS: min measurement bias
    • trained observer who is unaware of the study’s purpose &/ experimental conditions in effect
  • OBSERVER REACTIVITY: errors result from an observer’s knowledge that others are evaluating the data he/she reports.
    • an observer can be influenced by how he/she anticipates another observer will record data
  • how to min: monitor & record data unobtrusively
    e. g. use videotaping for second observer to observe the same session
33
Q

interobserver agreement

A
  • the degree to which 2 or more independent observer report the SAME value after measuring the same event
  • report IOA increase BELIEVABILITY
34
Q

benefits & use of IOA

A
  1. determine the competence of new observers
  2. detect observer drift (unintended)
  3. increase/decrease confidence that the definition of the target B was clear & measurement code was not too difficult
  4. given confidence that variability in data is not a function of which observer were on duty –> imply that changes in data actually reflect changes in B
35
Q

3 requisites for obtaining valid data

A

a. observers must use the same measurement system
b. observers must measure the same event
c. observers must be independent

36
Q

4 event recording IOAs

A
  1. total count IOA = smaller #/larger # x 100%
    • simplest method for event recording
    • percentage of agreement between the total # of responses recorded by 2 observers
    • OVERESTIMATED the extent of actual agreement
    • in DTT, use trial-by-trial IOA
  2. mean count-per-interval IOA = (int1 IOA + int2 IOA + intN IOA)/total # of intervals
  3. exact count-per-interval IOA = #of intervals of 100% IOA/total # of intervals
    - the most STRICT event recording IOA method
  4. trial-by-trial IOA = # of trials of agreement / total # of trials
    - for DTT: measure the occurrence / non-occurrence of discrete trial Bx –> the data can only be 0 or 1
37
Q

2 time / duration IOA

A
  1. total duration IOA = shorter (total) duration/longer (total) duration x 100%
  2. mean duration per-occurrence IOA = (duration IOA B1 + duration IOA B2 + duration IOA Bn)/total # of Bx with duration IOA
    - same formula for mean latency-per-response IOA, mean-IRT-per-response IOA
    - more conservative & more meaningful assessment of IOA
38
Q

3 time sampling / interval recording IOA

A
  1. interval-by-interval IOA/poin-to-point IOA = # of intervals both recorders agreed / total # of intervals x 100%
    - overestimate the actual agreement measuring Bx that occur at very high/low rates
    - subject to random/accidental agreement between observers
  2. scored interval IOA = # of intervals BOTH recorders record occurrence / # of intervals AT LEAST 1 recorder recorded occurrence x 100%
    - only uses intervals either or both observers scored an OCCURRENCE of the B
    - min. the effects of chance agreement for interval data on Bx that occur at very high/low rates
    - recommend for Bx that occur at freq of approximately 30% of intervals or fewer to avoid overinflated & possible misleading IOA measures
  3. unscored interval IOA = # of intervals both recorders recorded NON-occurrence /# of intervals at least 1 recorder recorded NON-occurrence x 100%
    - only uses intervals either or both observers recorded NON-occurrence of B
    - min. the effects of chance agreement for interval data on Bx that occur at very high/low rates
39
Q

how often & when should IOA be obtained

A
  • during each phase of a study & distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, observers
  • should be obtained for a min. of 20% sessions
40
Q

how should IOA be recorded

A
  1. narrarive description: mean & range of IOA
  2. table
  3. graphic display
41
Q

what are acceptable IOA scores`

A

no less than 80%

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