Section 4: the winds of change, c 1947-1967 Flashcards
what were the primary reasons for decolonisation?
economic impact of WWII
changing international situation with rise of Soviet Union and United States emerging as new world powers
the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in the colonies which Amed to secure independence from European empires
changing priorities in Europe with countries by the 1950s experiencing dramatic post-war recovery and emergence of European Economic Community in 1957, which Britain joined in 1973. as a result, support for Empire dwindled
specific problems in colonies such as India and Burma
how did decolonisation develop in West Africa? - Gold Coast
British administrators had anticipated during war that rise of educated African elite meant allowing some African political representation however British wanted change to be gradual and have no imposition on British interests
in 1946, Burns Constitution (named after Governor-General Alan Burns) drawn up in Gold Coast, establishing Legislative Council with elected African members though final power remained in hands of British Governor
Convention People’s Party (CPP) founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 pressurised British to make further concessions: Legislative Council enlarged and renamed Assembly and number of voting rights increased but still power remained in hands of British governor
though Nkrumah jailed in 1950, CPP won 2/3 of seats in 1951 and became clear to Burns that CPP would rule therefore Nkrumah released and given position of Prime Minister from 1952 with members of CPP taking posts of ministers
elected government given extensive control over internal affairs and Nkrumah’s popularity grew. in 1956, plebiscite in neighbouring British Mandate of Togoland gave vote for unification with Gold Coast. support for independence was so high that elections in 1957 passed on adult suffrage
country became fully independent in 1957 but Nkrumah proved divisive and authoritarian in later years of rule
how did decolonisation develop in West Africa? - Nigeria
in 1946, Richards Constitution drawn up (named after Arthur Richards, Governor-General). Allowed for greater African representation but Governor-General and Executive Council appointed by Governor retained power. country was regional and ethnically divided and British took view that any move towards independent Nigeria should take form of federation of separate regional states. thus, three assemblies for each 3 major regions - West, East and South
greater pressure for change from nationalist movements forced Macpherson Constitution of 1951 (named after Governor-General after Richards, John Macpherson), which extended right to vote and created National Council of Ministers, answerable to 185-seat House of Representatives. stimulated growth of Nigerian political parties. each region strengthened with own government and elected assembly. stimulated growth of political parties as federal house could not over-rule regional governments but ultimately exacerbated ethnic tensions
new political parties established representing different ethnic groups which pushed path towards independence. further revisions of constitution and federal elections in 1954 led to new government formed consisting of 3 British and 9 ministers from various regional political parties to strike balance. more power still devolved to regional governments and following federal elections in 1959, moves made towards full independence for the country in 1960
how did decolonisation develop in East Africa?
much more violent in parts of East Africa. rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness, activism, nationalist tendencies and labour disputes. during years of war, population of Nairobi increased by 1/2 while population of cities doubled - led to inflation, poor housing which fuelled protests
British saw region as ideal for economic development, with view to generating large dollar-earning exports. greatest symbol of aspirations was Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme of 1946. failure of scheme provoked East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements
in 1946, Britain and many countries experienced severe shortage of cooking fats. from this emerged idea of growing in Tanganyika large groundnuts which could be processed into cooking oil. project involved massive investment of £49 million however terrain proved difficult to cultivate and scheme was abandoned in 1951, the land turned into uncultivable dustbowl
in Kenya, long-simmering Kikuyu grievances at treatment by white settlers exploded into violence, when white people sought to mechanise farming and displace peasant growers. promoted many to resort to violence and led to Mau Mau Uprising from 1952 t 1956. British crushed rebellion with great ruthlessness and divided Kikuyu people but in doing so, weakened moral authority and support for nationalist continued
Tanganyika granted independence as Tanzania in 1961, Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in 1963
how did decolonisation develop in Southern and Central Africa?
in Southern Africa, white minority had enjoyed full control over South Africa’s internal affairs since 1931 at the Statute of Westminster. racist Afrikaner policies dominated
in 1948, Afrikarner Nationalist Party won power and implamented policy of Apartheid. non-white people treated poorly and opposition emerged and led primarily by African National Congress
throughout 1950s and 1960s, South African state responded with brutal suppression of all protests: 69 protestors killed by police at Sharpeville in 1960
international opinion became critical of South Africa and relations with Britain grew strained, so far so they left the Commonwealth in 1961. not over just apartheid but also as South Africa has pressed for Britain to hand over adjacent lands administered by British Colonial Office (such as Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland but Britain granted them independence: Bechuanaland -> Botswana in 1966, Basutoland -> Lesotho in 1966 and Swaziland in 1968) –> British refused
Britain tried counteracting South African influence by building colonial possessions in region, including Northern Rhodesia (a mineral rich copper province), Southern Rhodesia (an agriculturally rich territory with substantial white population) and Nyasaland (an economically undeveloped country)
during WWII, administration of territories helped in war and came to view that joint administration would counter South Africa and Central African Federation emerged in 1953. constitution saw some African rights given. limited provision for African representation in new Federal Assembly but powerful nationalist movements emerged in all 3 territories led by Africans suspicious of British intentions. white governors responded fiercely by arresting and imprisoning nationalist leaders
by the end of 1950s, Britain had concluded decolonisation was necessary. in 1960-61, British government ordered release of nationalist leaders in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and drew up new constitutions for territories, which paved way for majority rule
in 1963, CAF was formally dissolved and in 1964, Kenneth Kaunda led Northern Rhodesia to independence as Zambia and Dr Hastings Banda led Nyasaland to independence as Malawi, after Nyasaland experienced a state of emergency in 1959 with over 200 nationalist leaders arrested in Operation Sunrise
southern Rhodesia had determined white settlers determined to avoid being absorb into independent African-dominated country. in 1961, when CAF looked doomed, large section of white4 population switched support to new Rhodesian Front Party, which was dedicated to achieving independence for Southern Rhodesia but under white control. won elections that year and in 1965, Prime Minister Ian Smith illegally declared Southern Rhodesia independent. British sanctions proved unsuccessful and in 1969, Rhodesia became republic and country plunged into guerrilla war
how did decolonisation develop in Asia? - Burma
British decided to grant independence to Burma shortly after war, following violent activities of nationalists and ascendancy of AFPFL, led by Aung San. breakdown of order hastened British withdrawal as they planned to take slower approach
talks took place between Aung San and Attlee’s government in London in 1947 and agreed that elections for Constituent Assembly would take place in 1948. produced huge AFPFL majority however different functions within AFPFL couldn’t agree on Burma’s future path and in July 1947, Aung San and 6 of cabinet ministers assassinated by rival political faction
achievement of independence of Burma in 1948 was not quiet and brought eruption of civil war and Burmese completely turned back on British, rejecting idea of commonwealth
how did decolonisation develop in Asia? - Malaya
British faced serious problems in establishing control in Malaya in 1946. peninsula suffered from ethnic tensions between Chinese and Indians and Malay peoples. UMNO (United Malays National Organisation) created in March 1946 to fight for rights to Malay peoples. Chinese represented by Malay Chinese Association or Malayan Communist Party. Chinese were prominent in labour unions and involved in series of strikes between 1945 and 1948
tensions had run high - 1947, British colonial administration had to abandon original plan (drawn up by Edward Gent in 1944) to create a ‘Malay Union’. would have awarded equal Malay citizenship to all ethnic groups while keeping Singapore as separate Crown Colony
in June 1947, British produced new scheme with offered much more restricted definition of Malay citizenship (including competence of Malay and English languages, discriminatory against Chinese). new arrangements of Federation of Malaya were enacted in January 1948 and established Executive Council, which had native representation but ultimately headed by British High Commissioner
new federation was beset by problems, partly result of difficult post-war economic circumstances and partly product of Chinese grievances. British frightened by potentially damaging impact of rebel attacks on rubber plantation that they declared State of Emergency in June 1948, empowering colonial authorities to use military force and additional legal powers to arrest suspects
troubles raged between 1948-1952 and saw assignation of British High Commissioner Sir Henry Gurney in 1951. by 1952, order was restored and British believed hold on Malay secured. British had to make promise of Malay independence however. also promoted Malay Chinese Association, which also wanted independence, but with equal rights for Chinese
between 1952 and 1954 however, both Malays and Chinese united against British rule and together won 81% of votes in federal elections of 1955 and British feared if they resisted any longer, rebellion would occur due to similar parallels in Vietnam
Reid Commission led by Lord William Reid established in 1955 to draw up new democratic constitution and in 1957, independent Malaya established. continued military presence remained in Singapore
how did decolonisation develop in Asia? - Singapore
had enjoyed long degree of internal control over affairs and predominantly Chinese population and treated separate from rest of Malay Peninsula. during 1947-1948 given own government with Executive and Legislative council however, only 6/25 seats elected and only British subjects (10% of population) had right to vote
as part of federation, government in Singapore struggled to stop communism. in addition to arrests and imprisonment, attempt made to win loyalty of population by enlarging Legislative Council to 32 seats, wot 25 chosen by 300,000 electorate in 1953. first elected council had been dominated by Singapore Progressive Party - a conservative group that favoured businessmen
in 1959, Lee Kuan Yew of PAP (slightly communist) came to power and British decided in 1963 that Singapore’s future best be assured as part of Malaya, which became ‘Malaysia’
scheme proved unworkable and race riots between Chinese and Malays led to breakdown in public order and in August 1965, Singapore expelled from Malaysia and became independent
what approach did Britain take towards colonial policy and administration from 1947-67?
saw drastic change in wake of international, domestic and colonial upheavals. despite loss of India, Palestine and Burma in 1947 and 1948, in the 1950s, there was belief that Britain’s future prosperity lay in trade with Empire and Commonwealth rather than Europe - reestablishment of ‘Great Power’ status. this shifted to Europe in 1960s-70s
colonial administrators took different role. rapid improvements in agriculture, as well as industrialisation and training. Sir Ralph Furse seen as ‘master of modern civil service’. when retiring in 1948, only 66,000/250,000 employees of Colonial Office were British
colonial administrators also had to be proactive meaning giving less to indigenous leaders, i.e. in Malay and Kenya. as Britain began to force economic change - advancing credit, sending in experts and settlers in a ‘second colonial occupation’, local chieftains cast aside and officials fell back on own monopoly of office
creation of legislative assemblies in Gold Coast, Nigeria, Central African Federation, Kenya and Malaya - led to Western educated elite taking up positions and eventual independence
what was the ‘winds of change’ speech and why is it significant towards colonial policy?
speech given by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in Cape Town, South Africa, 3rd February 1960. warned white South African Parliament that ‘the wind of change is blowing though this continent whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a fact’
suggested a shift in Conservative and general British thinking towards empire
Hod did events leading up to the Suez Crisis develop in Egypt?
by 1947, Britain fearful about communist Russia’s ambitions in Middle East. Britain still has 10,000 troops stationed in Suez Canal as well as over Egyptian base Aden after 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty. Britain also had control over Cyprus and air-force bases in Iraq, as well as financing and providing officers for Jordanian Army, giving illusion of strong presence
Britain tried negotiating with nationalist Arab League to resist communist infiltration, Arabs weren’t prepared to support the British. years around 1947 saw constant skirmishing around Canal Zone and in 1951, King Farouk of Egypt independently renounced the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and proclaimed himself King of Sudan
in January 1952, Farouk himself was overthrown in military coup by Colonel Nasser. Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden immediately sought to negotiate Egypt’s new rulers and in 1953, agreement was made on stages towards Sudanese independence
in 1954, British agreed to phased withdrawal of troops from Suez Canal Zone subject to certain rights of reoccupation in time of war. reflect Britain’s desire to improve Anglo-Arab relations and also Britain’s financial difficulties as they couldn’t afford to station troops at the Zone. Egyptians promised British:
- free access through Suez Canal
- maintenance of former British bases in operational condition
- to respect independence of Suez Canal Company, ownership which would revert to Egyptian government in 1968 after Nasser would compensate French and British shareholders
settlement led to period of British diplomacy and Britain engineered Baghdad Pact between Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, Britain and Persia in 1955 to repel Soviet threat to Middle East. Nasser refused to sign and when British tried bringing Jordan into pact, put pressure on them not to sign. Nasser turned to Communist Czechoslovakia for arms in 1956 and signed alliance with Syria. eden was alarmed
in June 1956, Nasser made himself President of Egypt. determined to establish Egypt as leading power in Middle East. plans centred on construction of Aswan High Dam which he’d hoped would make programme of irrigation, flood, control and electrification. obtained promised of financial aid from both West and from Russia in 1955, but in July 1956, the USA (followed by Britain and World Bank) announced withdrawal of funding because of Nasser’s continued association with communist powers
what happened in the Suez Canal crisis?
in July 1956, Nasser announced nationalisation of Suez Canal Company, which was direct blow to British government who held 44% of shares. Britain tried using diplomatic pressure to persuade Nasser to reserve decision, while preparing for military action in case of failure. French also outraged and invited Britain to join France in joint assault on Egypt, in alliance with Israel, who was also affected
though efforts continued via UN, secret Anglo-French military discussions took place and in October, Eden believed only removal of Nasser would ensure security of British and French interests in Middle East, proclaiming he needs to be ‘destroyed; as he felt mistakes of appeasement in the 1930s would repeat
plan was hatched via ‘Protocol of Sevres’ whereby Isreal would attach Egypt on 29th October. on following day, France and Britain would demand both sides cease fighting and withdraw troops from vicinity of canal, followed by Franco-British invasion of Canal Zone on 31st October to protect it
Israelis routed Egyptian forces and forced them through Sinai Peninsula towards canal, at which point Britain and France intervened in a supposed ‘police’ action. Anglo-French force knocked out Egyptian Air Force and landed at North end of canal by Egyptians put up solid resistance and blocked canal with sunken ships
British miscalculated international reaction, embarking on military operations without informing the USA, whom immediately condemned the attack and refused to support sterling in currency crisis which war brought upon Britain
Britain announced a cease-fire within 5 days and both Britain and France began to withdraw troops within weeks. Eden forced to resign and a United Nations force moved in to Clear blocked canal and restore peace
what were the consequences of the Suez Canal crisis?
a growing realisation across political spectrum in Britain that Empire’s days were numbered. crisis is portrayed as ‘Britain’s last fling of imperial dice’
Britain wouldn’t act again in an imperial or international excursion alone nor without improved and close consultation of the US. Britain becoming a major independent power wouldn’t happen and dreams of these were quelled
suggested nationalist movement seeking to achieve independence should push harder to force Britain to surrender. made Britain’s task of containing independence movements increasingly difficult
called into question whole credibility of plans to hold onto formal colonies in Africa and elsewhere, encouraging British politicians that it was best to accede to nationalist demands soon. MacMillan’s ‘winds of change’ speech assisted to this
dispelled notion that Britain could ‘control’ imperial retreat in ways that would preserve British power
After crisis, Britain’s position in Middle East only declined further. Iraq left the Baghdad Pact in 1959, Cyprus was granted independence in 1959 after years of terrorism and violence between Turkish and Greek communities. by the mid-1960s, Britain only controlled air bases in Libya and retained protectorate over a few sheikdoms in Persian Gulf, Aden and South Arabian Federation, however Britain lost Aden in 1967 due to nationalist uprisings
Britain’s ‘special relationship; with the US was damaged: Eisenhower refused to provide billons of dollars to save the sterling so long as Britain remained stationed in Egypt. however, relations were quickly repaired after this and the UK adopted the US’ Polaris missile system by 1962 as well as signing a Mutual defence Agreement n 1958
what were international relations like and how did these influence imperial policies?
Britain’s imperial policy from 1946 to 1967 heavily influenced by changing international scene. after WWII, USA and USSR had emerged as superpowers and dictated international developments in post-war world. Cold War emerged between the two, due to different political systems both adopted and since both had nuclear missiles, mutual fear of destruction or ‘mutually assured destruction’. whilst America was anti-imperialist, they needed strong Britain to counter communist advances across the globe. America even financed low interest loans in regards to Britain’s colonies
- in the Balkans, President Truman asked Congress for $400 million in military and economic assistance for Greece and turkey, establishing Truman Doctrine in 1947. by this, USA pledged helping countries ‘resisting subjugation’
however, Britain was also increasingly dependent on the USA for financial aid, in form of Marshall Plan, where Britain received $3.3 bullion. therefore, most British imperial policy passed by them and when it wasn’t, harsh repercussions occurred a la Suez crisis. even Britain’s dominions began relying on USA for support
- Britain also relied on North Atlantic Treaty Organisation of 1949 and America’s nuclear capacity for defence
- a Mutual Defence Agreement was signed in 1958 and in 1962-63, both America and UK signed Polaris agreement, whereby US agreed to supply Britain with Polaris ballistic missiles for use in Royal Navy submarines
- formation of South East Asia Treaty Organisation (Australia, France, New Zealand, Philippines, Thailand, Britain and USA) in wake of Korean War acknowledged need of American-led protective alliance
Britain’s attempted reliance on empire kept it out of the European Economic Community until the 1960s, which brought Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany together in economic union in 1957. Britain began to realise its future relied on Europe and when it tried to join, France under de Gaulle conspired to keep British out, vetoing it twice in 1963 and 1967. Britain finally joined in 1973
how did Commonwealth develop and what importance did it play in trade with empire in the decolonisation era?
originally conceived in 1920s as an exclusive club of White Dominions enjoying high degree of domestic self-rule, given increased status by Statute of Westminster. change in Britain of way commonwealth was approached in 1949. the queen was no longer sovereign authority by ‘head of Commonwealth’ due to India and Pakistan being republics
approached as way of surrendering imperial ties whilst maintaining informal ones, being a ‘body of free and equal states’ upheld by ‘British values of democracy and human rights’, willing to mediate and negotiate in areas when necessary (e.g. when Australian Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, tried negotiating with Nasser on the Suez Crisis, though it failed)
commonwealth was important for trade up until 1960s, providing essential imputed of food and raw materials when Britain’s reserves of foreign exchange were too limited to source imports from other countries. heavy investment in empire also
- 1956 - approximately 58 % of all overseas investments in UK in shares and securities were in empire companies and governments
- 1948 - 45% of imports from commonwealth - 30% in 1965
- 1948 - 46% of exports went to commonwealth - 28% in 1965
