Section 1: the development of imperialism, c1857-1890

Question 1

what had caused the growth of the British Empire before 1857?

Answer 1

American colonies like the US and Canada has caused growth, however, loss of these prompted a ‘Swing to the East’ - explained a shift in British priorities to India, Asia, Africa and the Eastern hemisphere, with more desire for trade rather than conquest and control

slave trade had led to growth in control in Africa

mercantilist policies that benefitted Britain over its colonies

Question 2

what were the territories of the British Empire in 1857?

Answer 2

much of Canada
India
most of Australia
British Guiana and Caribbean
Sierra Leone, Gold Coast and Union of South Africa

Question 3

what were the differences between the territories?

Answer 3

territories like Britain, Canada and Australia were known as dominions
- white-settler colonies that exerted a certain amount of self-governance and control

India was governed under the Raj after the Indian Mutiny
- governed under the East India Trade Company on behalf of the British formerly

informal control in territories like Argentina and British Guiana

Sierra Leone, Gold Coast and Union of South Africa governed as British colonies

Question 4

why did the British expand in Africa from 1857-1890?

Answer 4

concept of ‘Swing to the East’
- as a result of loss of American colonies, Britain grew with renewed interest

industrial revolution
- production of steamships and weapons allowed for Britain to easily establish foothold in different continents

scramble for Africa and ‘old diplomacy’
- the ‘growing political power’ of rivals and competitors for reasons in expanding in Africa
- companies like the Royal Niger Company, the Imperial British East Africa Company and the British South Africa Company were chartered to protect the Crown’s interest in those areas - done to protect the claims against other European companies and powers

trade and economy
- as a result of Industrial Revolution, prices plummeted due to ease of access and Empire was seen with ‘renewed interest’
- new trading partners helped during The Great Depression of 1873-1896
- - coal, iron and timber sought to feed demands of British industry
- - as British industry developed. British bought resources from Africa to manufacture into goods such as weapons and textiles and sold them back to Africa
- expansion in Africa led to the opening of inland routes and discovery of mineral and resources. Investment opportunities followed
- British Foreign Office Memorandum cites interest in East Africa for reasons such as: ‘mineral wealth’; ‘unlimited capacity for the production of cattle’; ‘a European climate within easy reach of the coast’; ‘ natives are more naturally industrious than most of the West Coast tribes’; ‘the establishment of any Government strong enough to enforce good order and prevent the raids for more turbulent tribes’

strategic factors
- cape colony had warm waters, deep ports - allowing for bigger harbours and and giving access to Middle East, India, Australia, New Zealand and China
- interests in West Africa protected by building costal defenses in Sierra Leone and Gambia

idea of ‘moral superiority’ and religion
- Christian missionaries saw it as a ‘duty’ to educate ‘heathen’ people
- - David Livingstone is a prime examples
- - Historian Lawrence James suggests there was ‘general agreement that Empire was a powerful force for the spread of civilisation’

adventurers, explorers and success stories
- explorers and adventurers told stories of gold and raw materials
- merchants like George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes vetted success stories of business in Africa. British rule often followed

Question 5

why were the British originally interested in Egypt?

Answer 5

need for cotton during the American civil war. British mills were starved of raw cotton, Egypt’s was of good quality
- British companies began investing in Egyptian cotton and in modernising program of ruling Khedive, Isma’il Pasha

by the 1870s, 40% of Egypt’s imports were coming from Britain

Question 6

what was the Suez canal and why was it important to the British?

Answer 6

project led by a Frenchman to construct a canal for international shipping with a company known as The Suez Canal Company. set up in 1858 and was completed in 1869. France and Egypt had ownership of shares

became a crucial to the British due to the Panic of 1973 and interest grew
- known as ‘The Great Depression’ of its time, British trade plummeted due to goods being transported around Cape of Good Hope and having to be stored in warehouses
- 5000 miles longer than with the Suez Canal

in 1875, Benjamin Disraeli bought Egypt’s shares in the Suez Canal for around £4 million
- this became of huge importance to the British because it gave them a passage to India and income from shipping tariffs

Question 7

how did the British come to take control of Egypt?

Answer 7

purchasing of the Suez Canal sparked further interest
- led to need for British interest in the reason

the British began to wield considerable influence over Egypt due to its failing economy
- in 1879, Ismail Pasha was deposed due to economic mismanagement and his son, Tewfiq, became the new Khedive. British money and resources kept Egypt afloat and British Commissioner, Lord Dufferin, wielded considerable influence in Egypt
- to keep Egypt’s economy afloat, taxes were imposed on Egyptian food and goods, army reduced by 2/3 increased unemployment

therefore, nationalist rebellions under Arabi Pasha conducted in 1882 and British concerns grew due to the 100,000 Europeans living in Egypt and over the security of the Suez Canal
- in June 1882, in Alexandria, rebellions led to 50 Europeans killed; William Gladstone had to invade Egypt with British naval troops - Arabi forces defeated some British troops however Commander-in-Chief, Sir Garnet Wolseley, had taken the Suez Canal

this enabled the British to take control of Cairo and establish control of Egypt installing Tewfiq as a puppet ruler and soon Major Evelyn Baring was installed as Consul-General. Egypt has been described as a ‘veiled protectorate’ and was annexed in 1885

Question 8

how did the British the British come to control Sudan?

Answer 8

British administrator Charles Gordon who was sent to Egypt to act as Governor-General of Egyptian administered Sudan faced opposition. The British intervened but were defeated and did not establish clear control over the Sudan until 1896. British administrators faced opposition from Sudanese Islamic cleric Muhammad Ahmad, who in June 1881, proclaimed himself to be the savior of mankind
- drew on long-term hostility towards Egyptian rule, combined with recent resentment of British influence. In 1882, Mahdists took control over the area surrounding Khartoum
- in 1883, joint military expedition between the British and Egyptians under the command of Colonel William Hicks launched a counter-attack against the Mahdists. It failed and Hicks was killed
- Gladstone, reluctant to get into further conflict, ordered General Gordon to oversee the evacuation of British and Egyptian troops from Khartoum in 188 however was overrun in 1885 with virtually the entire garrison killed and General Gordon beheaded

Question 9

what departments oversaw the British Empire?

Answer 9

policy decisions regarding the Empire lay with elected government and a separate Colonial Office department has been established to deal specifically with Empire. Formerly established in 1801 with War Office but functioned separately in 1854
- a separate office for India was established in 1958 after the Indian Mutiny

office headed by Colonial Secretary

Dominions, where white-settlers were of a substantial representation, elected their own assemblies and ministers
- 1838 Durham Report established Canada, New Zealand and Australia into Dominions

Question 10

who ran India before 1857?

Answer 10

India was formerly run by the East India Company. they had gained a monopoly over India and oversaw expansion of British influence

Question 11

why did this change in 1857?

Answer 11

the East India Company became aggressively expansionist, provoking the Indian Mutiny, where sepoys in the East Indian Army revolted

thousands were killed and after the Mutiny, government decided to cease the company and hand over all rule to the queen

Question 12

what was the Government of India Act 1858?

Answer 12

the act established British rule in India through:
- passing territories of the EIC to the Queen (who became known as the Empress of India)
- creating a position of Secretary of State for India who received powers and duties formerly administered by the company’s directors
- establishing a council of 15 members who assisted the Secretary of State. acted as an advisory body. the members were white British
- Crown appointed a Viceroy to replace Governor-General - anybody could apply to work in the Indian civil Service, however, only white men were chosen. British also used Indian Civil Service in ‘divide-and-rule’, choosing Sikhs due to their loyalty in the Indian Mutiny

Question 13

How was India administered?

Answer 13

the British had established a clear hierarchy of rule. British prevailed
- Viceroy ruled India with a legislative council of 5 who held responsibility for finance, law, the army, economy and home affairs
- in provinces, Viceroy was represented by provincial governors with their own Legislative Councils. On a day-to-day basis, direct officers oversaw local councils and reported on practical issues
- Princely states, which Britain did not control under the EIC relied on native rulers
- - the 565 nominally independent PS formerly passed onto the British after the line of descent ended. this was stopped and helped to ensure loyalty from PS to the Empire
- - 40% of India made up of PS and British installed ‘residents’ to maintain the interests of the Viceroy

in the years after the mutiny, British gradually began respecting Indians and helped develop India
- traditional Indian practices and customs were respected, particularly in regards to marriage and family law
- Christian missionaries were actively discouraged but the government accepted responsibility for the promotion of education and did so
- the British helped build a vast railway network. 288 miles in 1876 and 20,000 miles in 1890

Question 14

what was the caste system?

Answer 14

caste system is traditional Indian custom whereby people are divided at birth into particular social classes

their is a hierarchy of castes:
- lowest ranks were the Dalits or Untouchables who historically suffered from much discrimination, while the Brahmin are highly or ‘priestly’ class
- some historians believe caste system was intensified by British imperial rule as it institutionalised the treatment of different castes as part of the system of government

Question 15

how was India defended?

Answer 15

from 1858, efforts were made to strengthen the British presence in Indian Army which, at outbreak of mutiny, numbered fewer than 40,000 British troops
- EIC’s armies brought under control of the Crown and proportion of British to Indian troops raised to a ratio of roughly 1:2. there was an army of 70,000 British troops/125,000 native troops by the late 1880s
- native troops trained and stationed in own districts, cu off from one another to prevent sense of unity. deliberately mixed by cast and religion
- army enlisted a greater number of Gurkhas and Sikhs, who had been loyal to Britain during the Mutiny, replacing Bengali troops who hadn’t
- - 62/74 Bengali regiments had high-class Brahmin regiments, which acted independently disappeared
- - many Hindu families took Sikh names to maximise career chances
- British officers increased and field artillery was handled by British. Indians also placed under British commanders and denied officer ranking

growth of railways helped India’s defense with 3000 miles of track built in the decade following the mutiny. exaggerated British presence and enabled swifter deployment of troops in the event of trouble
- an armored gun train introduced for mobile enforcement purpose and first Viceroy Lord Canning set up Imperial Police Force as extra layer of security. Avoided over-reliance on the army

Question 16

how did international relations affect expansion of the Empire before 1890?

Answer 16

by the end of the late 19th century, Britain became increasingly concerned about its position in relation to other European powers. it began to face challenge from expanding industrialisng powers
- in 1871, Germany united as a single country. because of its vast natural resources, it began to expand and show its ships on the high seas
- in 1871, France was defeated by Germany. France still transformed its armed forces and wanted to show ‘rightful place’ in the world
- Russia, through less industrially advanced, began constructing railway network which British feared could challenge presence in India
- - Disraeli invaded Afghanistan in 1878 due to fear of Russian influence growing. made Amir accept British control of Afghan foreign policy, showing influence of international pressure on colonial policy

naval building programs of France and Russia caused concern in 1880s. threat from Germany became acute in last decade of the century, as this gave nations the means to explore other areas, for example Africa and Asia
- in South East Asia, French established themselves in Indo-China in 1860s pushing north, where they were joined by Germans seeking commercial concessions
- Russia also set on imperial expansion in north of China to work on Trans-Siberian Railway beginning in 1891

British response tot eh French activity in Indo-China was to annex territory in:
- Malaya (1874), extending British influence from beyond Singapore (1819)
- Sarawak, North Borneo (1881), Brunei (1885) and Upper Burma (1885), leaving Thailand as a buffer between rival European powers

Question 17

what happened at the Brussels Conference?

Answer 17

in 1876, King Leopold of Belgium hosted a conference o explorers and leaders from geographical societies across Europe. Largely motivated by desire to protect Belgian interests in Congo. It concluded:
- Africans incapable of developing natural resources to be found in Central Africa: European intervention necessary
- routes to Africa’s lakes needed developing by building roads/railways
- International African Association should be established to coordinate European efforts

competition heightened as it became clear Leopold wanted to build empire
- Leopold hired surveyor H.M. Stanley to survey basin of Upper Congo River in order to establish own enclave in central Africa
- In November 1879, the International African Association was named the International Association of the Congo, which provoked further fear
- Stanley signed over 450 treaties with local chiefs to establish sovereignty
- in retaliation, France and Germany hired own explorers to stake claims in region
- - France extended control from Senegal into Western Sudan in 1879. Portugal asserted its claims to control mouth of Congo River in 1884

Question 18

what happened at the Berlin Conference in 1884?

Answer 18

conference’s initial task involved securing agreement that both basins and mouths of Congo and Niger rivers were to remain neutral and open to trade. major powers negotiated territories into spheres of influence. conference concluded with a signing of a General Act, which promised:
- all nations be permitted to trade in basin of the Congo and its outlets
- free trade should prevail in these regions
- powers with influence should help protect indigenous people and suppress slave trade
- powers should support and protect religious, scientific, or charitable undertakings, Christian missionaries, scientists and explorers
- if any power took possession of further land on coasts of Africa, it should notify signatories of the Act, in order to enable them to assert any claims of their own

Question 19

what impact did the Berlin Conference have?

Answer 19

General Act triggered a scramble for territory across Africa. by 1900, 90% of continent was in European hands

conference was a success in terms of European relations
- enabled countries to expand empires in ordered fashion and without risk of conflict with one another. Africa was seen as a ‘safe arena’ for competing countries as they were unlikely to tread on each other’s toes

conference didn’t do much for indigenous peoples
- no African representation at the Berlin conference. spheres of influence mapped out with little concern for geographic, ethnic, linguistic, or religious divisions
- no concerted effort to combat African or Arab slave trade and well-being and customs of locals was overlooked

Question 20

what was informal empire?

Answer 20

informal empire were places influenced by Britain. usually economically, via free trade agreements or by British investment in the country . British influence also derived from commerce, financed by British capital, carried in British ships and providing profits for British companies, bankers and insurance firms

Question 21

where did Britain have informal empire and how did they maintain it?

Answer 21

commercial agreements and British investment influenced Latin America, in particular Chile, Argentina and Mexico
- British public capital in Latin America stood at over £80 million
- 10% of British exports went to Latin America in 1865

free trade agreements also brought countries like Iran and Siam (Thailand) under British influence

weak Chinese empire also under influence of British Empire
- began with Britain’s need to sell opium to China to finance the BEIC. forced to make concessions to Britain, who used her naval power to threaten attempts to disrupt opium trade from India to China
- Treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858), which were after both Opium Wars, ensured Britain gained trading bases, for example in Shanghai and Hong Kong. settled with British people and governed other British law
- 1863: Robert Hart appointed head of Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Office. acted as a branch of government with purpose of protecting British interests. parts of China joined British informal empire and British gained unhindered access to Chinese markets

British also used naval force in making sure informal empire upheld free trade treaties in Latin America
- in 1861, Britain put naval pressure on Mexico to maintain trade
- in 1857 and 1863, Peru and Chile (respectively) had naval threat to ensure compliance

territories of strategic importance also fell under British influence due to diplomatic pressures and appointment of key advisers
- Sultanate of Zanzibar in East Africa, on coast of Indian Ocean, placed under British influence due to the work of John Kirk. in 1891, British established a government there with John Kirk as Minister
- in Afghanistan, Treaty of Gandamak of 1879 provided British key strategic locations and control of foreign policy

Question 22

what does informal empire show us about the British reasons and/or justifications for Empire?

Answer 22

British used empire for their own benefit, British has no ultimate control and were able to enjoy influence without responsibility

Question 23

what was Britain’s economy like in the late 19th century?

Answer 23

by 1870, Britain was at the height of commercial and industrial power
- accounted for 1/2 of the world’s trade in textiles and industrial goods
- gross national product was greater than Russia and China combined
- merchant fleet carried 1/2 the world’s sea borne trade

the world’s banking and investment system based in London
- about 40% of British investment went to imperial territories between 1870 and 1914

Question 24

what was protectionism? why had it been got rid of?

Answer 24

protectionism involved raising tariffs on international trade in Empire to benefit Britain. colonies obliged to send most of produce to Britain to buy British manufactured goods, and use British ships for imports and exports

Question 25

what was free trade? why was it preferred?

Answer 25

protectionism was dismantled as belief that wealth was indefinitely expandable and freedom was the only way to maximise prosperity grew. Britain being foremost a trading nation enjoyed free trade as its economic dominance was sustained by a limited application of force, also known as ‘imperialism of free trade’. prohibitive tariffs from Germany in 1879 and France in 1881 forced Britain to rely on Empire for trade

Question 26

how important was trade with Empire? why?

Answer 26

in 3/4 of the 19th century, 20% of Britain’s imports came from its Empire. Empire provided a market for around 1/3 of Britain’s exports

empire was important to Britain’s trade as trading patterns were well established. empire used common language, currency and shared system of commercial law

growth of free-trade saw development of industrial empire in which colonies supplied raw materials and foodstuffs which Britain converted into finished goods which colonies often bought back

free trade was prohibited between colonies as Britain turned it down in the Colonial Conference in 1887, showing how Britain often exploited Empire

Question 27

how did infrastructure of trade contribute Empire? - ships and shipping

Answer 27

reached highest efficiency in 1860s with clipper ships. suited to low volume, high profit goods, such as tea, opium, spices. used to carry mail and people

development of steamship allowed heavy goods to be carried overseas in 1850s. reduced travel time between Great Britain and West Africa to less than 3 weeks and increased cargo capacity

opening of Suez Canal in 1869 and development of triple expansion engine in 1870s further stimulated construction of steam carriers

steamships also used in inland regions, for example travelling up River Niger

Question 28

how did infrastructure of trade contribute Empire? - railways

Answer 28

railways key to economic development in Empire but also maintaining control. allowed quick transport of goods
- British provided investment, engineers and rolling stock resulting in colonies depending on Britain. allowed Britain to pressurise governments - Canada forced to accept British policies on defence in mid-1860s, as price of London capital guaranteed

railways allowed Australia to export wheat and wool, South Africa to expand territories and commercial interests in region, India to link cotton and jute-growing areas of North with mills of Bombay and Calcutta and enabling rice to reach ports for export and, in West Africa, allowed for links between land and sea

Question 29

how did infrastructure of trade contribute Empire? - canals and rivers

Answer 29

Canals and rivers allowed for explorers to investigate Africa beyond accessible cost arenas. In India, canals and rivers built waterways where there were none. allowed avoidance of hazardous stretches of water

Question 30

what are 4 examples of products/goods/raw materials that came from the empire, where they came from and why they are important?

Answer 30

tropical colonies like South Africa produced goods that weren’t available in Britain such as sugar, coffee, cocoa, groundnuts, copra and palm oil

tea in India was important as it became the most popular British drink by 20th century
- in 1854, value was £24,000 by 1876, it was £2,429,000

cotton from India was also important as it was often used to convert goods to sell back to colonies
- in 1854, the value was £1,642,000. in 1876, it was £5,875,000
- plantations built in India to grow products. workers were often underpaid

gold discovery in Transvaal was significant as it caused influx of migrants (near 30,000 from Cornwall) into region, securing British interest

Question 31

what were chartered companies?

Answer 31

chartered companies were the main way of organising trade before 1850. East India Company was chartered. British government allowed them to progress at own rate, seeing competition as sign of healthy capitalism

Question 32

what role did chartered companies play in expansion?

Answer 32

economic depression of 1870s revived idea of chartered companies as way to expand British interests at 0 cost to government
- in 1881, North Borneo Trading Company received charter for means of administering territory and maintaining British influence against French
North Borneo benefitted from deposits of coal, iron, copper and economic infrastructure development

North Borneo led to establishment of Royal Niger Company in 1886, Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888 and British South Africa Company in 1889

Question 33

what were the pros of trade and for who?

Answer 33

trading with Empire benefitted Britain
- from 1857-1890, 20% of British imports came from Empire, whist Empire provided Britain with a market for 30% of her exports

Britain developed infrastructure in her colonies
- London being financial center of the world, around 40% of British foreign investments went to her colonies. Britain built railways, telegraph lines, developed roads and the general economy in her regions
- in India, miles of railway track grew from around 288 in 1957 to 20,000 miles of track in 1890

during the depression of 1870s, Britain’s reliance on her Empire led to growth of trade with her colonies, which ultimately benefitted them
- value of tea soared in India from £24,000 in 1854 to £2,429,000 in 1876. cotton soared from over £1,500,000 in 1854 to £5,500,000 and over in 1876

led to the glorification of empire in Britain with colonial and imperial conferences and exhibitions

Question 34

what were the cons of trade and for who?

Answer 34

didn’t always benefit the natives in colonies. they were often underpaid, overworked and mistreated by the British

trade between colonies was prohibited and Britain dominated trading environment
- colonial conference of 1889 prohibited trade between colonies

Cecil Rhodes and Goldie benefitted Britain through trade with Empire

trade with Britain wasn’t always helpful as many countries relied on protectionist tariffs to develop their own industries and economies
- Canada in 1850s and Australia in 1860s imposed tariffs against Britain

Question 35

why were explorers important to empire?

Answer 35

explorers like Livingstone, Kirk, Burton and Speke became household names. their exploits were well published by missionary press and were eagerly read by the British public. helped open up the interior of Africa by producing maps and publishing their findings. made empire exciting

Question 36

David Livingstone

Answer 36

explorer

began travels as a missionary doctor in South Africa, 1841. Explored deserts, lakes and rivers. named infamous ‘Victoria Falls’. crossed continent from West to East before returning to Britain an publishing books, conducting lectures at Cambridge University and recounting geography, mineralogy, diseases and languages he’d seen abroad

received funding from British government in 1858 to return to Africa and ‘try to open up a path for commerce and Christianity’

portrayed as a martyr who saved Britain when he was lost and found by Henry Stanley in 1871

Question 37

John Kirk

Answer 37

explorer

helped explore waterways with Livingstone. appointed chief medical officer for his Zambezi expedition. collected many aquatic specimens which he wrote about and sent back to Britain

returned to Africa in 1868 as medical officer and Vice-Consul of Zanzibar, which he helped keep as a client state of Britain. Initiated British treaties that ensured Sultan outlawed Zanzibar’s slave trade and with British aid, commerce grew

Question 38

Sir Richard Burton

Answer 38

explorer

adventurer in 1850s famous for stories of Muslim life and mannerisms. took visits to Islamic cities such as mecca, where no Western Christian had ever been. took expeditions in Somaliland in 1855 and Zanzibar in 1857 and 1858. competition between John Speke after he contracted malaria led to both debating the source of the Nile, which Speke thought to be Victoria Falls

Speke’s death made this impossible and Burton eventually went on to write several books and volumes about his exploration in Africa, particularly Western. produced various translations of texts such as the Kama Sutra. wrote essays on pornography, homosexuality and sexual education of women

Question 39

why were Christian missionaries important to Empire?

Answer 39

missionaries helped open up territories to British rule by penetrating beyond colonial frontiers (for example, into the Congo in Africa or inland China in the 1880s) by establishing links with indigenous communities. shared their geographical and strategic knowledge with the chiefs and British authorities

wanted to open up the world to Christianity, saw populations amongst whom they worked as ‘in need’ of saving from ignorance and moral poverty. contributed to imperialistic and jingoistic views in Britain as many believed natives benefitted

they criticised imperial politics but weren’t starkly opposed to concept of imperialism. helped increase economic and material prosperity for people in regions, advanced by imperialism by consolidating or skating claims to territory thus extending Britain’s commercial reach

Methodist missionaries particularly active
- by the middle of the 18th century, Wesleyan missionaries had set up ‘conferences’ to oversee missions in Canada, New Zealand and Australia
- those from Australia helped establish ground for British rule in Fiji, 1874
- South African conference similarly established in 1882
- 1883: John Mackenzie put pressure on British government to establish protectorate over Bechuanaland
- missions also established in China and India from 1850s and West Indies in 1885

female missionaries also grew
- Mary Slessor aimed to end practice of killing twins in Calabar, Nigeria
- Mary Carpenter worked to improve female education in India when she travelled there in 1866

missions also clashed between one another at times, with natives or even colonial rulers. therefore, it sometimes delayed British rule by prolonging annexation and challenging imperial authority. Some Christian missionaries provided focus for opposition to colonial rule

Question 40

why were traders important to empire?

Answer 40

traders had an important role to play in the development of attitudes to Empire. Once commercial enterprises had established a foothold somewhere, British administration often followed

Question 41

Cecil Rhodes

Answer 41

trader

owned all South Africa’s diamond mines (90% of global diamond production) and had wealth to peruse ‘furtherance of the British Empire and bringing the whole of the uncivilised world under British rule’

Rhodes granted a charter to establish British South Africa Company in 1889, through concessions and treaties. in his honour, names ‘Rhodesia; in 1895

Rhodes said his ambitions were moralistic and for the bettering of the human race

Question 42

William Mackinnon

Answer 42

trader

self-made Scottish businessman who began coating trade around the bay of Bengal. in 1856, he founded Calcutta and Burma Steam Navigation company. this became British India Steam Navigation Company and grew into a huge business organisation, trading through the Indian Ocean, Burma and Persian Gulf

founded Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888 with a charter supported by British government as a means of establishing influence in the region

Question 43

George Goldie

Answer 43

trader

bought a palm oil business in 1875. palm oil was popular due to lubricating qualities

Formed Central African Trading Company in 1876, visited in 1877 and in 1879, persuaded all local trading firms to join a family-run firm to establish United African Company, which controlled 30 trading posts

application for a royal charter in 1881 was rejected. Goldie managed, however, to find a way to convert palm kernels to margarine. these later exceeded the value of palm oil. Goldie was therefore able to offer concessions to local tribal chiefs, who signed treaties to trade only with his company’s agents whilst Goldie promised to buy up all spare goods. established cocoa and coffee plantations

managed to secure 450 local treaties which allowed company to have control over their territories and ultimately led Britain to securing protectorate over Northern and Southern Niger at the Berlin Conference 1884 -5

Goldie’s firm chartered as Royal Niger Company in 1886 and was knighted in 1887

Question 44

why were administrators important to Empire?

Answer 44

empire was typically run by ‘men on the spot’ - company directors, governors, high administrators and consuls. often tempted by opportunities to acquire more influence and so brought more lands under British control. many took independent decisions about how regions should be administered and developed`

Question 45

Evelyn Baring

Answer 45

administrator

began career as colonial administrator, serving in India as private secretary to cousin, Lord Northbrook, Viceroy from 1872 to 1876. was able administrator, however was known as ‘over-Baring’. typical Victorian colonial administrator who was liberal and hardworking but also condescending towards natives

Baring’s second posting was in Egypt in 1877, when he was sent out to help Isma’il Pasha out of his financial difficulties. His advice was ignored but he returned in 1882 as Consul-General and established an Egyptian puppet parliament in 1883 under the Dufferin Report. asserted the need for British supervision of reforms in bankrupt Egypt this established a ‘veiled protectorate’ in 1885 whereby baring ruled rulers of Egypt. remained the real ruler of Egypt till resigning in 1907

Question 46

Bartle Frere

Answer 46

administrator

served in quelling Indian Mutiny, which won him knighthood and a place on Viceroy’s Council at Calcutta. Subsequently became the Governor of Bombay, a member of India Council in Britain between 1867-1877 and a baronet. his experience let to appointment in 1877 as High Commissioner and Governor of Cape Colony

conservative Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon chose him to carry out planned confederation, merging British South Africa with Boer republic of Transvaal. South African colonialists were hostile to plan and Transvaal Boers wanted to keep independence, leading to the Boer war. Frere was left in a difficult position when Carnarvon resigned in 1878. although ending in British victory, defeat of British forces at Isandhlwana in January 1879 and high cost of war led to official reprimand. Gladstone’s liberal government denounced him for acting recklessly

Question 47

how important were individuals in the expansion of the British Empire? why?

Answer 47

role of individuals and ‘men on the spot’ in expansion of British Empire from years 1857-90 was incredibly significant. all played a unique role in helping the British empire expand horizons territorially, in extending economic influence and in spreading and promoting ‘glory’ of empire and developing regions somewhat

Question 48

who was Disraeli and what did he believe about the Empire?

Answer 48

twice prime minister and regarded in 1870s as a great supporter for Empire from Crystal Palace speech in 1872. leader of the conservatives

Disraeli asserted that Conservatives were ‘party of empire’ and that Liberal opponents would allow Empire to crumble

said in infamous Crystal Palace speech that ‘in my opinion no minister in this country will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing as much as possible for our colonial empire’

Question 49

how was Disraeli’s government involved in expanding and/or administering the Empire?

Answer 49

expanded right to vote for 1.5 million working class men with 1867 Reform Act. Allowed him to play the ‘imperial card’

in 1875, he purchased Is’mail Pasha’s shares to Suez Canal for £4 million

in 1876, Disraeli supported bill which appointed Queen Victoria as Empress of India. passed in 1877 as Royal Titles Act

tried to turn Afghanistan into a client state with Treaty of Gandamak in 1876

Annexed Boer republic of the Transvaal in 1877 and launched war on Zulu and Pedi tribes in hope of establishing British confederation over Southern Africa. proved a failure and British troops were humiliated at Isandlwana in January 1879 before securing victory a few months later. contributed to the Liberal government winning the 1880 election

Question 50

who was Gladstone and what did he believe about empire?

Answer 50

leader of the Liberal party. prime minister from 1890s

Britain needed to avoid new acquisitions and concentrate on developing existing colonies, helping them towards self-government

distinguished between ‘imperialism’, which he opposed and ‘empire’ which he supported. in theses of him and Liberals, Disraeli’s ‘imperialist’ talk was dangerous and stirred up ‘jingoism’

Question 51

how was Gladstone’s government involved in expanding and/or administering the empire?

Answer 51

Gladstone had to defend British garrisons which were attacked by Boers, heralding First Boer War of 1880-1. after troops were defeated at Majuba Hill in February 1881, Gladstone declined to commit further troops, time or money to uphold Disraeli’s ambition for British hegemony over South Africa

mahdist rebellion in Egypt forced Gladstone to take action in the region. Gladstone ordered withdrawal of British troops in 1884 in Sudan. wasn’t re-elected due to slaughtering of British troops in Khartoum in 1885. Queen Victoria and the British public condemned him

Gladstone became embroiled in Egypt for maintaining the Suez Canal. he sent troops in 1881 to stop Arabi Pasha’s uprising. 1882, Tewfiq installed as puppet ruler in newly occupied territory

surprisingly, more territory was acquired to Empire under Gladstone than under Disraeli. in 1884-5, the Berlin Conferences led Gladstone to establish protectorates in Somaliland and Bechuanaland due to maintaining influence in the region. Tswana being left in power in British Bechuanaland suggests Gladstone was a ‘reluctant imperialist’

hesitancy was also exhibited when German claimed Pacific Island and New Guinea in 1884. Gladstone resisted intervention and prosper of direct confrontation with Germany. instead premier of Queensland ordered occupation of the Island’s south eastern zone to establish British control

supported home rule for Ireland, again confirming reluctant imperialism

Question 52

who were the Irish nationalists?

Answer 52

the only truly anti-imperialist party in Parliament. they supported Irish independence

Question 53

in the first half of the 19th century, how did Britain respond to Empire?

Answer 53

in mid-19th century, British government didn’t pursue an active role due to poor communication, long distances involved and lack of institutions to deal with empire

the empire was source of pride however, trade and access to markets was biggest concern

1870s saw a shift in intensity around empire. central to this was concern about other imperial powers. other nations began to grow industrially, increasing competition with Britain. tariffs in the US and Europe prevented British goods from flooding the market. Britain had to look somewhere else

Question 54

how did the British public get information?

Answer 54

growing popular press publicised stories of heroism
- 1857 - press had shown power to influence public in reporting of Indian Mutiny. British horrified by stories of massacres and tortures, e.g at Cawnpore and thrilled by those brave soldiers, such as Major-General Havelock, who recaptured Cawnpore. press turned him into a hero and a statue of him was erected in Trafalgar Square
- 1882 - Arabi Pasha’s revolt in Egypt was well reported, gazettes wrote of ‘Moslem mob’ killing ‘all the Christians they could find’

Education Act of 1870 had increased national literacy rates and extension of the vote in 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts (under Disraeli and Gladstone respectively) made public more politically aware

imperialist literature such as H. Rider Haggard’s ‘She’ in 1887 led to pride

Question 55

how did sources of education shape the British publics opinions?

Answer 55

helped reinforce the idea of Victorian benevolence. jingoistic attitudes prevailed

British saw empire as an ‘empire of races’ and believed themselves infinitely superior to indigenous peoples in everything from religion and morals to laws and political institutions. accompanied by belief that bring people into empire could ‘civilise’ indigenous peoples, leading them away from ‘savage’ existence and turning them into hard-working, law abiding citizens - this however was rarely the case

publications like Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’ in 1859 led to the belief of white superiority. theories of natural selection soon applied to humans. Quasi-scientists justified views by pointing to the eradication of Plains Indians, Maoris and Aborigines in Australia

Question 56

what were ‘Imperial Exhibitions’?

Answer 56

exhibition was held in 1851 and 1862 in South Kensington, featuring over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries. represented wide range of industry, technology, arts and displayed 7000 exhibits from India alone

in 1877, a Nubian village, featuring animals and humans, were collected from Sudan and put on display at London’s Alaxandra Palace

in 1886, Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in South Kensington to ‘give the inhabitants of the British Isles, to foreigners and to others, practical demonstration of the wealth and industrial development of the outlying portions of the British Empire’ in this exhibition, Indians were brought over as ‘living exhibits’

Question 57

what caused the Indian mutiny?

Answer 57

mutiny had begun among sepoys in the Bengal army, mainly peasant soldiers from north India proud of their military status

as been argued that mutiny began because of issues with Enfield rifles being greased in animal fat, which offended both Hindu and Muslim religious sensibilities

real cause was that nobles and landlords were deprived of land by Governor-General Dalhousie. peasants also rebelled due to resentment towards taxation

Question 58

what happened during the Indian mutiny?

Answer 58

sepoys in Bengal refused to obey orders in February 1857 with many other battalions following suit. at Meerut, outside Delhi, sepoys turned on British officers and mob set upon local Europeans. seized control of most northern cities (including Cawnpore) and there were attempts to resurrect old Mughal emperor. some rebels wanted to get back at neighbours

cost of the rebellion in terms of humans suffering was immense even though not much of India was touched. emperor’s sons were executed so remaining rebels would stop. Villages were burnt in Delhi and Lucknow, mutineers were tortured, women and children murdered and British rule wasn’t entirely reasserted until June 1858 following final battle at Gwalior

Question 59

what was the impact of the Indian mutiny on government and society

Answer 59

after 1858, relations between Indians and British were soured, especially as British portrayed Indians as ‘savages’ in need of civilisation

Viceroy Canning between 1859-61 made exhaustive tour of India to win back those feeling disposed. some land and titles were returned to natives, Star of India medals introduced and positions in Imperial Assembly or Statutory Civil Service were shared amongst Indian nobility

Indian Raj was meant to be administered under ‘fairness’ however ultimately favoured white man. legal systems were too complex and expensive to help poor, especially in regards to land. some wealthy Indians supported the Raj but it didn’t benefit peasants

jobs in the Civil Service were never beyond ranks of colonial bureaucracy and only offered to wealthy Indians

Question 60

what was the impact of the Indian Mutiny on education?

Answer 60

supposed ‘equality of opportunity’ favoured wealthy Indians in education institution illiteracy prevailed amongst peasants

universities established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857. elite schools like Rajkumar College, Mayo College and Bombay’s Cathedral school set up to produce ‘Westernised Oriental Gentlemen’ (where the term ‘wogs’ comes from)

after 30 years following 1857, around 60,000 Indians entered universities, mainly studying Arts with 2000 studying law
- 1/3 of Calcutta students graduating by 1882 entered government service. slightly more went into legal profession. graduates of 3 universities accounted for around 1100 appointments to government service

social reformer Mary Carpenter visited India 4 times between 1886-1975. helped establish a corps of British teachers for India and the girls’ schools in Bombay and Ahmedabad and college to train female Indian teachers

Question 61

what was the impact of the Indian Mutiny on the economy?

Answer 61

railways, through built for strategic reasons to affirm British rule and control across India through transporting personnel and soldiers, benefitted India economically. the British mainly employed Anglo-Indians and Christian Indians who were regarded as loyal to the Raj to run railways, which increased jobs

some European-style factories built however since bulk of manufactured goods came from Britain, there was no heavy industry. India was unable to develop industries of its own as it once did
- tea plantations increased from 1 in 1851 to 295 in 1871
- domestic production of raw cotton exported to Britain increased in 1880s and 1890s

subsistence farming prevailed

jobs were provided in the civil service, police, army and as clerks

British offered markets for Indian agricultural products, however only for products that were high yielding, like rye, barley and coarse rice. India became dependent on imports and food imports and consumption per head declined

Question 62

what was the impact of the Indian Mutiny on attitudes of the British?

Answer 62

British believed rule was liberating for Indians

Whig reformist T.B. Macauley believed educating Indians to ensure they became ‘English in taste, in opinions, in morals’ justified British domination

Question 63

how were the Bantu treated in the years 1857-1890?

Answer 63

Bantu land was eroded by white settlers. discovery of diamonds and gold increased wealth but only benefitted settlers

laws passed at insistence of mining companies that limited right of black Africans to have claims over mines or to trade in their products. black Africans relegated to manual labour. forbidden by law to live where they wanted and forced to stay in segregation neighbourhoods and compounds

Question 64

how were the Boers treated in the years 1857-1890?

Answer 64

British Cape Colony bordered Dutch republics of Orange Free State and transvaal, who had been in region since 1883 and moved north from Natal, which Britain annexed in 1845. during the first 1/2 of the 19th century, relations between British and Boers was peaceful and British had recognised Boer states in 1950s, though claiming some control over territories. discovery of diamonds in 1867 near Kimberly on the Vaal River in West Griquland, bordering Orange Free State, triggered ‘diamond rush’ attracting white settlers and native Bantu to region

in 1868, British annexed Basutoland (land of Khoi Khoi and Sotho people) claiming indigenous Africans were seeking British protection against Boers. Own 1871, British also took West Griqualand. following annexation, 2000 Girqua trekked eastwards to establish Girqualand East in 1873. this was also annexed by Britain in 1874

British went on to propose federation of British and Boer territories in 1875, Boers rejected. areas suffered from extreme instability as both British and Boers tried exerting control over valuable area for traders

in Xhosa War of 1887-88, British easily disarmed neighbouring tribesmen and annexed communities to Cape. Boers struggled with Pedi tribe who maintained independence in eastern Transvaal. British announced annexation of Transvaal in 1877, claiming defence of white European settlers against Pedi and Zulus. Boers reluctantly accepted and British launched invasion of Zululand in 1879

British defeated Zulus therefore Boers declared total independence from Britain in 1880. Boers turned on British: attacked army garrisons across Transvaal and won series of victories culminating in humiliating failure at Majuba Hill in February 1881, where Iver 150 Britons were killed

British forced to sign Convention of Pretoria, recognising Boer self-government in Transvaal though Britain still claimed right to control external affairs

in 1884, arrival of German presence in south-west Africa rose fears of German-Boer alliance. Britain consequently annexed Bechuanaland between German south-west Africa and Transvaal to prevent union

in 1886, new gold discoveries at Witwatersrand near Transvaal capital of Pretoria was eagerly sought by trading companies, bringing mass of non-Boer Europeans (known as Utilanders) into Transvaal, including Cecil Rhodes

Cecil Rhodes received charter for ‘British South Africa Company’ in October 1889 seeking to enrich self and Empire. aim was to create continuous British land route from Cape Town in Egypt

in September 1890, Rhodes’ company established fort at Salisbury in Mashoanaland, home to Shona people, aiding British control in the region. British dominance in South Africa was not assured however.