Section 2: imperial consolidation and liberal rule, c1890-1914 Flashcards
why and how did Britain take control of Ashantiland?
British actions in Ashantiland are typical of how they acted to protect one territories. in 1890s, tired of skirmished with the Ashani in trying to claim costal land, the British demanded their King (Prempeh), turn over remainder of his empire to Britain as protectorate
this led to fourth Anglo-Ashanti War. Britain conquered Ashanti territories and forced Prempeh from his throne in 1896. a further and final uprising in 1900 led to Britain’s formal annexation of the Kingdom in 1900 and it was formally incorporated into the Gold Coast colony in 1902
why and how did Britain take control over Nigeria?
British laid claim to Nigeria by virtue of occupation of Royal Niger Company, established in 1876, and by agreement with French in 1890. French agreed to recognise Britain’s domination in the area in return for Madagascar
the British government took over the responsibilities of the Royal Niger Company and established direct British control in the north in 1900, the south in 1906. Nigeria was eventually unified in 1914
why and how did Britain take control over Uganda?
in the 19th century, Anglican and French Catholic missionaries as well as Zanzibari muslims lived in Uganda achieved success in converting people. in 1886, King Mwanga asserted authority, executing 20 Catholics and Protestants, causing to civil war. promised British he’d hand over some sovereignty to Imperial British East Africa Company in return for becoming king again. in 1890, he signed a treaty with Lord Lugar on behalf of Imperial British East Africa Company, ceding powers over revenue, trade and administration of justice to company. transferred to crown in 1894 and Buganda became a protectorate, as part of Uganda
Britain constructed Ugandan railway from Mombasa in 1896 to connect coast with the fertile lands bordering Lake Victoria, which consolidated Britain’s takeover of both the East Africa Protectorate and Uganda
- 660 miles, took 5 years and £5 million to build and took lives of around 2500 labourers, usually due to accidents, disease and also wildlife. known as ‘Lunatic Line; as crazy events took place during construction: i.e. Tsavo incident, where around 35-100 rail workers were attacked and eaten by 2 lions
why and how did Britain take control over Kenya?
British interests in Kenya dated back to Berlin Conference. offered route to Uganda
British made use of succession dispute between native Mazrui and muslim majority to force control. Sheikh Rashid took up arms against British, obtaining weapons from the Germans, taking the British 9 months to quell. eventually, this became part of British East Africa
why and how did Britain take control over Zanzibar?
ceded to British influence as part of 1890 treaty between Germans and British establishing spheres of influence. declared protectorate of British empire in 1890 and installed their own puppet (Sultan Thuwani)
died in 1896 mysteriously in his palace, amidst rumours of poison. his cousin Khalid rose quickly to power which concerned the British, whom they asked to stand down. when he refused, a naval bombardment of the palace took place. it was infamous in being the shortest war, lasting 38 minutes, when he stood down
why and how did Britain take control over Nyasaland?
British sought control of Nyasaland because it was discovered by Livingstone and was on shore of the Lake Nyasa
faced Portuguese-backed Arab attacks until it became of Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa Company in 1891. guerrilla warfare continued on and off until 1897 and eventually became part of British South Africa Protectorate in 1907
Sudan campaign
Mahdist rebellion of 1881, which brought about death of General Gordon in 1885 in Khartoum, left the area in weakened state. Khalifa Abdullah, who succeeded Mahdi, truing to being together his state but was plagued by war from internal resistance fighters and famine
Gladstone always wanted to withdraw troops from Egypt as soon as it was safe but after Conservative Prime Minister Salisbury was elected in 1885, Salisbury has a growing concern for Sudan as he wanted to maintain Egypt for the Suez Canal. Salisbury was also worried about French and German expansions in East Africa
Britain signed a treaty with Germany in 1890 whereby they took Tanganyika and Britain took Kenya and Uganda. French although persuaded to keep eyes on West Africa began eyeing up East Africa later. Italian forces fighting Abdullah were seen as positive as it meant their attention was away from Egyptian border however when they were defeated in 1896, this diversionary support was lost
the incident in Adowa in 1896 gave Britain an excuse for his campaign in Sudan as he could argue for it due to African barbarianism. Kitchener was appointed Chief of Egyptian Army in 1896 and given orders to penetrate Sudanese territory as far as Dongola, but Kitchener was determined to go further as far as Khartoum and establish control of Sudan. additional forces and imperialist support helped him succeed at the Battle of Omdurman
Kitchener was then ordered to go to Fashoda on the headwaters of the Nile, where French expedition arrived. both laid claims to the region but the meeting wasn’t particularly fiery and in Britain, the ‘Fashoda incident’ was viewed with fear as talks of war with the French arose
in agreements in 1899, the French promised to stay out of the Nile in return for territory further west. also, a British and Egypt agreement led Egyptian-Sudan to be territory further west. also, a British and Egypt agreement led Egyptian-Sudan to be established as a ‘condominium’ whereby Sudan would be run with Egyptian support
Jameson raid
idea of British confederation of South Africa was pushed in 1890s, largely to counter German territorial gains and Boer confidence derived from Transvaal gold wealth
in 1895, gold seeking Utilanders of the Transvaal, who’re being denied citizenship and voting rights by the Boer government, sought help of Cecil Rhodes, who was one of the leading magnates of the Rand goldfield. this provided excuse for British intervention
Jameson raid was launched on Transvaal from British Rhodesia by Dr Jameson, Rhodes’ agent. they were going to work with the outlanders, who eventually pulled out, to rise against the Boer government. without the Utilanders, who eventually pulled out, to rise against the Boer government. without the Utilanders, Rhodes still instructed Jameson to invade Transvaal with only 500 mounted police. defeated easily: Jameson and 12 companions sentenced to imprisonment by a British court. Rhodes forced to resign
although Britain never formerly opposed it, Chamberlain covertly gave support by not doing anything. he didn’t want war but didn’t want British influence weakened and when trying to sort the situation with the Boers, talks broke down in 1899. the Boers, anxious to strike a blow before the British South African Army could be reinforced, invaded British territory and sieged Ladysmith in Natal
this led to Second Boer War. initially the Boers had some success, but British poured in nearly 400,000 imperial troops at £250 million cost. General Kitchener and Roberts also led campaigns. even though, Boers weren’t defeated till 1902
the Peace of Vereenignig in May 1902 ended war. Boers acknowledged themselves as British subjects and Boer republics became British colonies with promise of self-government as other white settler colonies did. granted in 1908, Prime Ministers of Transvaal, Orange Free State, Cape Colony and Natal drew constitution for ‘Union of South Africa’. the Union of South Africa became a dominion in 1910
strategic, economic and imperialistic - reasons for British expansion in Africa in the years 1890-1914
Egyptian expansion was perhaps because of Suez Canal
Zanzibar and Uganda establishment was because it allowed consolidation of East African expansion: Ugandan Railway, 660 miles was to allow coast and highlands direct access
Kenya expanded into as it offered route to Uganda
Cape Colony and Transvaal conflict rooted from Utilanders and gold - Rhodes’ actions were not liked by British but they has to defend British interest - eventually led to Union of South Africa in 1910
European rivals - reasons for British expansion in Africa in the years 1890-1914
Nigeria established because Britain already had charter company (Royal Niger Company established 1879) in the region and French interest grew
Zanzibar was eyed by the Germans and settled in 1890 treaty. Sudan annexed due to Fashoda incident with French and Italians - French eyeing up territories before however this was finally settled in 1899 when the French agreed not to push into the Nile
protecting own territories - reasons for British expansion in Africa in the years 1890-1914
Ashantiland annexed in 1896 when Prempeh was forced from throne due to them causing skirmishes in trying to annex territory on the coasts of West Africa and Gold Coast
How was India governed (1890-1914)?
head of government was Viceroy backed by Indian Civil Service, which was almost entirely white British and recruited from Oxford and Cambridge. ensured regime was secure, profitable and content for natives. strict restrictions on size of service because pay and pensions were costly - no more than 3-4 per district
rule required collaboration with natives and rulers. education and expansion of railways enabled Indians to learn English and modernisation. economic and social development meant Britain has to interfere economically and physically - tax collection and city/urban growth
Indian Civil Service often relied on ‘divide and rule’ to hold British rule in India, emphasising divisions between race, language, religion, caste, occupation and region
some degree of Indian representation in provincial councils in reforms of 1892 and 1909 acknowledged but British executive influence prevailed and exploited division between educated Indians and illiterate rural masses to create ‘Anglo-Indian’ administrative elite. many Indian elite accepted British rule as a route for further and accepted British values
who was Lord Curzon?
Viceroy from 1899-1905. very responsive towards Indian demands
mindful of growing criticisms which emanated from professional ‘middle class’ Indians and their representative body the Indian National Congress, which established in 1885 to campaign for home rule
- members of Congress were often cautious (they such British national anthem in proceedings), they criticised British trading arrangements, restraints on industry and heavy taxation to Indians to pay for high-earning British civil servants
- other groups came from social and humanitarian groups such as ‘The Servants of India Society’ which was active among ‘Untouchable’ community at bottom of caste system and wanted reforms for old restrictive laws and practices
Curzon made changes in civil service to improve efficiency and founded Imperial Cadet Corps in 1901, giving native princes and elite figures military training and ‘special’ officer commissions. reformed universities and police, lowered taxes and adopted gold standards to ensure stable currency
set up Commerce and Industry Department, promoting industry and an Agricultural Department, sponsoring research and overseeing establishment of agricultural banks. projects ranged from preservation of ancient monuments to railway expansion and irrigation
had a focus on defence against international powers at time, Russia. in 1901, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) was created to protect border from Russia fears. merged with north-western areas Pashtun of Afghans with Punjab with Chief Commissioner put in place. mounted temporary invasion of Tibet in 1903-4 to counter Russia’s perceived ambitions in area and two countries also closed over influence in Persia
what happened with the Partition of Bengal?
Curzon decided Bengal should be divided into 2 separate provinces: Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam and Hindu-majority province of West Bengal
uproar occurred amongst Hindu elite of West Bengal, many of whom owned land on East Bengal that they leased into Muslim peasants. Hindus saw partition as payback for criticisms of British rule and there were strikes, protests and boycotts of British-made goods. Surendranath Banerjee, who has twice been president of the INC, led campaigns and nationalism began to develop further. Curzon resigned as a result in July 1905
consequently, the muslim elite, which supported partition, formed the All India Muslim League in 1906 to safeguard rights of Indian Muslims and self-rule. generally favourable to British rule however Hindu/Muslim division used to justify British control as only means of avoiding serious religious conflict. bengal was ultimately reunited in 1911
what were he Morley-Minto reforms?
Viceroy Minto (1905-11) left to deal with fall-out of Curzon’s plans. encouragement of liberal government from 1906 and John Morley, Secretary of State of India, he introduced limited programme of reforms in 1909 in an attempt to appease Bengalis
- Indian Councils Act of 1909 enabled 27 Indians to be elected from provincial constituencies to Viceroy’s council, which advised Viceroy and assisted in making of laws. though elections were were held on a narrow franchise and, in some cases, representatives were chosen by the British, reform provided for greater Indian participation in government
- further democratic reform in 1910 meant elections in enlarged provincial councils 135 Indians were able to secure seats across the subcontinent and play a greater part in government at a provincial level
who was Viceroy Hardinge?
from 1910-16, he ruled and made reforms to deal with the partition of Bengal. he used the opportunity of King-Emperor George V’s visit in India in 1911 as an opportunity to reunite Bengal. he moved the Indian capital from Calcutta to Delhi (a Muslim stronghold) as a means of undermining revolutionary Hindu groups, and the monarch laid the foundation stone of the new capital, New Delhi
his declaring war on India’s behalf raised hopes for a ‘new deal’ for Indian home-rule, leading to Montagu Declaration of 1917, which promised eventual self-rule
what problems did the British face in Egypt?
Egypt was not technically ‘British; until 1914, when it officially became a protectorate. it was only under military occupation, which has originally been intended as temporary. Egypt still belonged to Turkey with the Sultan as the Khedive’s overlord. the British tried reaching agreement with Sultan as the Khedive’s overlord. the British tried reaching agreement with sultan in 1887 by which they’d withdraw troops after 3 years. when this came to nothing in 1890, British largely ignored Turkish rights and Sultan didn’t interfere
the capitulations slowed down law-making regarding Europeans and in general. all foreigners in Egypt were granted privileges, once granted by Sultan, to protect Europeans from Muslim laws against Christians. e.g. a foreigner could claim right to be tried in his own country’s law courts. any new Egyptian laws affecting Europeans has to be approved by the governments of all counties represented in Egypt
the Caisse de la Dette (which included Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Italy as well as Britain) controlled Egypt’s finances. about 1/2 of the country’s revenue went to paying European bond-holder. members of Caisse could prevent British Consul-General from spending Egypts money to finance the re-conquest of the Sudan were thwarted by Russia and France
- after fashoda incident in 1898, the British and French grew closer and in 1904 signed an Entente Cordiale, by which French agreed to respect British special rights in Egypt for return of British recognition for French take over of Morocco - Caisse de la Dette ceased to control Egyptian finances and became only a debt-collection agency for foreign bondholders
the mixed courts also, which has been set up to deal with cases involving both Egyptians and Europeans and were presided over by European and Egyptian judges, weren’t always supportive of British
what benefits did the British bring to Egypt economically and socially?
Egypt has a partially-elected parliament, consisting of an Advisory Council of Laws and a General Assembly - but all Egyptian government ministers had ‘support’ of a British adviser. if they resisted British advice or interference, they’d be dismissed. number of Britons working in government in Egypt steadily increased. in 1885, there were only about 100, by 1905 there were over 1000
Consul-General Evelyn Bating helped wipe Isma’il Pasha’s debt of £70 million and develop Egypts economy and infrastructure. Baring made cutback to Egypt’s military and bureaucracy, revitalised economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes (carried out by British engineers, who’d worked on similar ones in India) improved conditions for Egyptian labourers and introduced Bette sanitation and health services in towns and stimulated cotton and sugar production
- within 10 years, exports of cotton and sugar had trebled and population had risen from 7 to 10 million
- Baring oversaw rapid expansion of tourism. Thomas Cook and Son came Egypt’s largest employer - providing jobs in hotels, houseboats and excursions. many wealthy enjoyed to ‘winter’ in Egypt. however, most were advised against mixing with locals
- example of irrigation system built was Aswan Dam. 18 meters high and 1/4 of a mile long built to hold back waters of the Nile. cost £2 million, owned in 1902 and enabled 1/2 a million acres of former desert to be irrigated with water from its reservoir, enabling year-round cultivation
Eldon Gorst, successor of Baring, brought more Egyptians into government to weaken national party. Kitchener in 1913 established new Legislative Assembly, replacing Advisory council of Laws and General Assembly, consisting of greater number of elected members (66) and 17 appointed nominees (Egyptian>British) however represented rich landowners more than regular Egyptians
how did Britain maintain their interests in Egypt?
Baring reformed Egypt’s army, placing 6000 British troops within to ensure interests weren’t jeopardised by military or popular disturbances and placed under command of General Kitchener. changes were made to law courts, police and education through Baring was sceptical extending educational opportunities since he’d seen growth of nationalist movements in India. Egyptians were really offered more than few years of elementary schooling and it wasn’t until 1909 that a new university was founded
Gorst imposed tighter censorship of press in 1909 and used various penal measures to quell growing nationalist within Egypt but never worked as German government provided funds to fuel anti-British sentiment
Kitchener established Legislative Assembly with British nominees, this increasing dominance. also curbed nationalist sentiment in Sudan
in which ways did the Egyptian Nationalists and British clash?
by late 1890s, growing middle-class nationalist movement fuelled by newspapers which barracked British for failing to deal with corruption of Khedive’s government and for doing little to help Egypt’s poor. British failed to promote Egyptian cloth-making industry, proving jobs for unemployed, to keep Lancashire cloth-spinning industries alive. nationalists also complained about lack of opportunities for educated Egyptians
a National Party formed un 1881 but revived in 1893 as secret society, attracting Egyptian lawyers and professionals, many educated in Egyptian and European establishments. sought end of British occupation and own representative government. Cromer largely ignored demands but appointed an Egyptian as minister for education
national press was horrified by 1906 Denshawai incident, clash between British officers and Egyptian villagers where group of British officers angered residents by pigeon-shooting for sport, the pigeons being bred by villagers for food. officer’s gun shot and hit a woman and Egyptians ran over the officers, killing them. 52 arrested, some being killed for murder and some serving hard labour - questioning of British rule
wear was the British ‘Native Policy’?
most successful form of ‘native policy’ was in Dominions, essentially independent and used for preservation of global power
idea that local elites used to facilitate British rule and uphold British interests. those who supported British were given administrative positions, positions of power or material reward or sometimes even put in power, i.e. Sultan Hamad in Zanzibar
‘native policy’ also often involved favouring one group against another. British East Africa for example, Masai were favoured and rewarded with cattle and tokens of office. Buganda’s king maintain autonomy and chiefs were given land as reward for their loyalty
cheap, maintained existing power structures and legitimised British authority
