Section 3: imperialism challenged, c1914-1947

Question 1

how did the First World War impact the British empire?

Answer 1

First World War devastated Britain
- 40% of Britain’s merchant fleet sunk and Britain has debt of 136% GDP
- colonies sent approximately 1.4 million men to fight for empire between 1914-1918, supporting 5 million men from British Isles. empire also supplied Britain with raw materials and food, ultimately playing a huge part in victory, owing to the policy of ‘imperial preference’ under Asquith

increased empire solidarity to an extent
- in 1917, Lloyd George created Imperial War Cabinet to coordinated imperial military policy. included Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Area and Oudh. Indian representatives also joined. only held 2 meetings however was criticised by Australian Prime Minister Billy Hines as it was dominated by British after peace negotiations regarding Australia were passed without discussions with the Australian government

the white dominions praised for their war effort
- conscription was introduced in New Zealand in 1916 and Canada in 1917
- the Australians and New Zealanders were applauded for their bravery in Gallipoli campaign (1915) and the Canadians for their contribution in the battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917
- Canada also supplied Britain with munitions which the British army used 1/3 between 1917-19
- 136,000 South African troops contributed to the war effort

many countries felt disillusioned by Britain, wanting less involvement from empire
- French Quebec regarded war as pro-British affair and in March 1918, there were protest riots against conscription
- Australians also rejected conscription on two referendums, in October 1916 and again in December 1917 after troops were slaughtered at Gallipoli
- republican movement in South Africa grew
- Chanak Crisis of 1922 where Canada declined to commit troops to support British in Istanbul

India contributed immensely and wanted rewards for it
- 1/3 of troops in France in autumn of 1914 were either Indians or British soldiers who formerly served in India. 1.5 million volunteered. in 1917, Indian government contributed £100 million to war effort, nearly going bankrupt in the process
- Indian National Congress became vocal and wanted independence for India. Montagu promised ‘responsible’ self-government for India. in 1919, Government of India Act was introduced

African countries contributed heavily to war and wanted rewards
- Egypt turned into protectorate in 1914 and 1.2 million recruited to defend Egypt and Middle East. 100,000 Egyptians fought in Europe, 50% died
- black South Africans and from the tropical colonies recruited to France as labourers. many died, i.e. fighting Germans in Tanganyika
- first Pan-African congress held in France 1919 and delegations from South Africa in Versailles conference and wanted concessions

Question 2

how did the British Empire expand and contract during the inter-war years?

Answer 2

Britain gained vast amount of land after the end WW1. British empire reached greatest extent with addition of 1.8 million square miles and 13 million new subjects because of League of nation ‘mandates’
- treaty of Versailles in 1919 stripped Germany of former colonies and gave them to League of Nations to be administered as ‘mandates’. guiding principle of treaty was Woodrow Wilson’s belief for ‘self-determinatin’
- - Madame system set apart 3 categories: category A was for countries that were seen as quite developed and independence would be a viable future option; category B was for countries which required long period of guidance before independence; category C was for small islands and areas which couldn’t be feasibly independent
- Treaty of Serves in 1920 and Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 continued this to the Ottoman Empire
- the Treaty of San Remo in 1920 divided these territories amongst the allied powers
- the British gained land in the Middle East, Africa and Palestine
- - Britain already seemingly had interest in the Middle East as shown by its former foreign endeavours. in 1915, the McMahon-Hussain Correspondence between Arab king and British High Commissioner of Egypt was where Britain promised support for an Arab state in exchange for defeating Turks. Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 was also evident of Britain’s interest as they essential divided up the Middle East with France, paying no attention to ethnic borders. the Balfour Declaration of 1917 also shows how Britain wished to have influence by promising the Jewish in their hopes for a Zionist state in the Middle East to gain the support of Americans in their influence in the Middle East. eventually proved problematic as Jewish and Muslim relations strained severely with violent clashes occurring due to increased Jewish migration – Britain gained Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), Palestine, Tanganyika, Togoland (Gold Coast), German South-West Africa and many of the dominions gained mandates of their own (Australia and Papua New Guinea)

Britain’s oldest colony, Ireland, was lost because of war
- Ireland has joined in 1801 and had vociferous Home Rule movement. Gladstone had failed to carry Irish independence and though Asquith has come close, never happened - Third home Rule Bill in 1913 provoked uprising in Ulster, which wanted to remain united
- because of war, it was never implemented. Irish prepared armed rising against British. April 1916 Dublin Easter Rising was put down but followed by period of guerrilla warfare only ending in 1921 when Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed. New Catholic Irish Free State established and giving ‘Dominion’ status. 6 northern territories objected and remained in Northern Ireland
- 1937 Statute of Westminster gave Ireland dull independence as ‘Eire’

Britain also lost its mandates Egypt and Mesopotamia in the inter-war years
- in 1922, Egypt was granted formal independence after being made a protectorate at the outbreak of WW1, though remained British client state till 1954. British stationed in Egypt until singing of Anglo-Egyptian treaty in 1936 where troops would withdraw bit stayed in Suez Canal Zone
- in iraq, Anglo-Iraqi treaty of 1932 granted independence but maintained economic and military ties with Britain, including air bases in the country

Question 3

how did WW2 impact the British Empire

Answer 3

myths of ‘British superiority’ were crushed
- in 1942, Japan seized major European imperial possessions, including Singapore. main British military and naval base in region. Subhas Chandra Bose called this ‘the end of the British Empire’
- Japanese also seized Hong Kong, overran Malaya and Burma and by summer of 1943 were poised to attack India itself. Japanese invasion narrowly averted in 1944

India and Burma pushed for independence and were eventually lost after
- INA led by Subhas Chandra Bose fought with Japanese after defeat of Singapore in 1942, giving 30,000 troops
- Burma fought with Aung San under guidance of Japanese for independence, leaving Commonwealth after receiving it

Britain’s economy and stars as a superpower was crushed
- Australia and New Zealand began looking to America for support
- independence and nationalist movements grew more because of this
- battle of El Alamein in 1942 almost swept Britain of influence in Middle East from German and Italian threat

Question 4

How and why did the British withdraw from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent after WWII

Answer 4

British withdrew from India due to growing nationalist movements during the inter-war years, the Second World War solidifying their independence
- India has become an increasing worry during the interwar years
- - GIA 1919 was introduced, establishing system of diarchy. however due to fear of rebellion Rowlatt Act was also passed in the same year, giving authorities power to imprison anyone. went wrong and contributed to nationalist sentiments after Amritsar Massacre in April 1919
- - Round Table Conferences in London in early 1930s failed, even GIA in 1935 couldn’t stop India from leaving Empire and become independent
- - 2 key groups played role in independence: all India Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, which wanted state of Pakistan
- - Hindu Congress Movement of Gandhi which wanted united India
- WWII, Quit India campaign, Indian National Army and Japanese seizure of Singapore effectively solidified Britain’s loss of India. in 1942, Winston Churchill sent Stratford Cripps to effectively solidify Indian independence by making it a dominion however they refused
- - in 1945, Atlee decided to grant India independence as soon as possible as they feared trying to keep India with INA would stretch military resources, cotton exports were low from India and it was no longer the market they require and fears of the Indian Army being unreliable
- - viceroy Mountbatten sent in 1947 to compete independence and decided to partition India into Pakistan by 15 August 1947. 1 million people died in partition violence and many were affected in exodus

Britain withdrew from Burma due to a growing nationalist movement and supported by the Japanese and a lack of political will.
- Anti-Fascist Organisation had initially supported Japanese during war however switched sides to British after seeing likely ally victory
- restoration of British governor Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith who focused on rebuilding Burma turned Anti-Fascist Organisation into AFPFL, a resistance league - coalition of Burmese Communist Party and People’s Revolutionary Party under leader Aung San
- Mountbatten, recognising strength of support for Aung San, incorporated Burma National Army into new army in 1945
- In September 1946, mounting civil disobedience and increasing ungovernability of country promoted replacement of governor with liberal one and placing Aung San in effective control of Executive Council
- in 1946, Atlee said Britain was no longer able, nor willing, to commit sufficient troops to impose British authority on Burma. the island became independent in 1948

Britain withdrew from Palestine due to tense Arab-Jewish relations
- since 1930s, Nazi repression of European Jews in holocaust led to massive increases in numbers of Jews wanting to migrate to Palestine. migration soared and by 1945, the British wanted to limit scale of migration into Palestine in effort to dampen conflict
- the British wanted to keep Arab allies on their side however the international pressure from President Truman and others favoured Jewish settlement in Palestine. Britain needed to retain foreign and economic aid from America
- British sought a solution between Arab and Jewish leaders, looking at a unitary state (as favoured by Arabs as they’d dominate), provincial autonomy with several territories governing autonomously but ultimately electing a national assembly (rejected by Jews) and the partition of Jewish and Arab states (rejected by Arabs)
- Deadlock in February 1947 -> Sterling Crisis led to financial difficulty and Britain had spent £100 million on Palestine since January 1945, 330 British soldiers dying -> commitment impossible. Referred question to United Nations. British decided to not alienate Arab world and decided to give Palestine to United Nations in September 1947, withdrawing troops by 1948

Question 5

how was India administered in the years 1919-1947?

Answer 5

system of diarchy established between India and Britain

the government of India Act 1919 was passed after Montagu Declaration of 1917. under this act:
- a national parliament with 2 houses for India established about 5 million of the wealthiest Indians were given the right to vote (a very small percentage of the total population)
- within the provincial governments, ministers of education, health and public works could now be Indian nationals
- the act planned for a commission to be held in 1929 (Simon Commission) to see if India was ready for more concessions/reforms
- however, the British controlled all central government and within the provincial government, the British kept control of the key posts of tax and law and order though required to justify them before the Legislative Council
- many in India felt that they had been badly let down by the British government for their part played in WW1

Simon Commission of 1929-30, which didn’t include Indian representation recommended that:
- federal system of government be created across India, incorporating both provinces and Princely States
-provinces be given more power
- defence, internal security and foreign affairs remain in hands of Viceroy

Round Table Conferences of 1930 and 1931 were special meetings due to the growing independence movement and the Salt March. Gandhi couldn’t attend the first one but attended the second but no agreement was reached. Dominion status rejected due to feeling of incompetent non-white leaders and Indias strategic and economic importance to Britain

GIA 1935 created a federation of India by making provinces completely self-governing, though governors to be appointed by British. Self-government could be suspended in emergencies. voting rights also expanded from 7 to 35 million people
- act opposed by Congress partly because it fell sort of independence Princely States rejected federation

after being dragged into war, several Congress ministers resigned from office in protest. independence eventually given in 1947

Question 6

how was Africa administered in the years 1919-1947?

Answer 6

colonies under indirect British rule were economically developed by Britain to increase value of empire and improve living standards though most initiatives were funded by African taxpayers as Britain expected these colonies to be self-financing
- the Great Depression also affected Africa however as resources were sucked out of the county and little imperial development initiatives occurred. protests in Northern Rhodesia were common
- several initiatives included:
- - the British government allotting £3 million to Sudan in 1920 for Gezira cotton Scheme to increase cotton production
- - the British government allocating £10 million for improving rail and dock facilities in Eastern Africa
- - investment in schools and educational facilities in Western Africa
- - agricultural research stations set up across the continent
- - Colonial Development Act of 1929, which gave £1 million for development projects across British colonies in Africa

white settler colonies pushed for self-government
- pressure put on British government to give Kenya self-government in 1920. Kikuyu dominated and mistreated
- - power given to 20-30,000 strong white-settler community. Dominated Legislative Council and used influence to exclude Indian settlers and Kikuyu. tea and coffee taxed heavily from black-settlers and some banned. many migrated to major cities such as Nairobi
- - stirrings of nationalism amongst Kikuyu angered Colonial Office in London, which issued ‘Devonshire Declaration’ in 1923 which proclaimed rights of Africans had to be respected
- Southern Rhodesia also saw dominant white settler population
- - took political power and won self-government in 1923
- union of South Africa where respect of ethnic minorities had been implemented into granting of dominion status in 1910 were disrespected
- - white minority had established control over internal affairs by 1930s and Statute of Westminster in 1931 gave dominions legislative autonomy - white dominance continued

Question 7

how was Palestine administered from 1919-1947?

Answer 7

Britain’s main policy towards Palestine was to ensure it as buffer against potential threats to Suez Canal
- Civil government established in 1920 with huge issues regarding Jewish and Arab representation. Arabs favoured by administrators in Palestine however British favoured Jewish
- Herbert Samuel tried bringing both to govern with Palestine however ethnic tensions prevented cooperation. tensions often erupted for example between 1928-29 at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, where riots arose due to access for worshipers with hundred of deaths on both sides
- problems over landholding. Palestine Arabs often poor farmers with absentee landowners and with growing Jewish migration and support of Jewish National Fund, many Jews purchased Palestinian land and kicked off Arabs
- enquiry in 1929 called for Jewish policy of land acquisition to curbed and on 1931, another recommended restriction on Jewish land acquisition. pro-jewish feeling in Britain and USA forced government to back down
- Nazi persecution accelerated Jewish settlement in Palestine. in 1936 , British sent 20,000 troops to Palestine to deal with Arab rioting and attack on Jews
- Peel Report of 1937 recommended Palestine be partitioned into separate Jewish and Arab states, which British maintaining authority over Jerusalem and small number of holy place - opposed by Arabs
- British adopted policy of repression to deal with escalating violence between 1937-39, with over 100 Arabs hanged
- in 1939, Jewish immigration restricted to 15,000 per year for 5 years with plan for Palestine to be declared independent in 10 years
- didn’t satisfy Jews or Arabs but British saw it as short-term strategy for stability

Question 8

Iraq (Mesopotamia)

Answer 8

in 1920, British forced to intervene militarily (through air power) when widespread Muslim demonstrations against British rule in Baghdad turned into revolt. Kurds in north, who wanted independence, also rebelled

at Cairo Conference of 1921, British decided to allow for some local self-government in meetings with Arabs, whilst retaining full British control of military and foreign affairs

Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1922 confirmed Faisal I as King - regarded as ideal compromise candidate. Senior British advisers still appointed to most government departments to ensure continuing British control over Iraqi affairs as well as control of army and major military bases
- further Anglo-Iraqi treaty of 1930 promised full consultation between two power on matters for foreign policy. eventual independence in 1932 however British still retained influence in the area, particularly oil industry. Iraqi means to receive 20% share however British didn’t honour this and Iraqi’s has to accept terms for new Iraq Petroleum Company

Question 9

what was ‘imperial defence’?

Answer 9

Britain faced 3 key problems in relation to imperial defence:
- severe economic difficulties during inter-war years with key industries lost out in international markets because of Great Depression. Costs of defending Empire became a burden
- new aggressive regimes emerged in 1930s in Europe and Asia, posing direct threat to Empire and potentially Britain herself. imperial Japan seen as threat in Asia, Fascist Italy in Africa (where attempted conquest of Abyssinia in 1935 posed threat to British interests) in Egypt and Nazi Germany in Europe
- rise of nationalist independence movements, especially in India made need for military resources in case of trouble more urgent

Britain has to take geopolitical view and prioritise - balancing costs and military demands of defending global empire against needs in Europe and home. in 1920s and early 1930s, mistaken faith that League of Nations could provide security in international affairs that British needed

policy of appeasement adopted in some parts of world in order to allow deployment of resources to other areas. meant seeking to diffuse tensions with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy by allowing them to get much of what they wanted in terms of territorial demands in Europe, allowing British forces to be strengthened against possible attack on empire in Asia from Japan

Britain modernised Indian army and continued with longstanding project to build up Singapore as formidable naval base, spending £25 million

however, Neville Chamberlain (British Prime Minister, 1937-40) badly underestimated scale of ambition in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Britain eventually went to war with Germany over Poland in 1939 and with Japan over Singapore in 1943

Question 10

what was the economic impact of WW1 on the British Empire? - Britain

Answer 10

Britain was extremely exhausting for Britain
- estimated to have cost around £35 million, over 1 times as much as Boer War, which was regarded at that time as being an enormously expensive war
- over $4 billion has to be borrowed from US
- much of Britain’s capital investment overseas has been wiped
- pound sterling has to be removed from the gold standard for duration because gold reserves ran so low
- lending money was difficult

war effort had severe consequences for the most important industries
- production for war prioritised over making goods for export to traditional overseas markets and thus Britain’s competitors able to win markets traditionally dominated by British exports. not all those overseas markets won back after WWI
- textiles, shipbuilding, coal, iron and steel - created income to pay for running and defending empire though experienced great difficulties between wars as they faved new overseas competition, i.e. Japanese textiles

Question 11

what was the economic impact of WW1 on the British Empire? - India

Answer 11

contributed £146 million to war effort and country experience inflation and shortages during war

imports from Britain began to fall shoer after 1914, which at the time was 2/3 of total import, because of growth strength of foreign competitors. Indian manufacturers began to develop own market and also maintained British control
- rose from 11% in 1917 to 25% in 1931

Question 12

what was the economic impact of WW1 on the British Empire? - Canada

Answer 12

benefitted from war, emerging as industrial power as British manufactures lost ground

began trading more with America

Question 13

what was the economic impact of WW1 on the British Empire? - Australia and New Zealand

Answer 13

exporters of food and relied heavily on British markets - hit hard by disruption of trade caused by war

Question 14

how did trade and commerce change in the inter-war period?

Answer 14

policy towards imperial trade went through two distinct phases in inter-war period
- after 1920s, Britain recreated economic system existing before 1914 where empire had no special preference. returned to gold standard in 1925 in order to stabilise international trade. however, Colonia Development Act of 1929 still provided treasury funds to support colonial development projects therefore some attention to Empire
- after Great Depression, emphasis on importance of empire for British commerce and imports from empire increased. forced to abandon gold standard in 1931 but trade with empire in sterling proved valuable
- most countries of empire fixed value of currency to sterling and some kept national reserves in sterling, reflecting close ties with Britain. gave access to British market for countries in sterling area, ensure profit outlet for British overseas investment at time when most international opportunities closed down. Britain used empire to soften impact of great depression

Question 15

what types of goods were imported/exported and how valuable was imperial trade?

Answer 15

exports to empire and imports from increased in 1930s as idea for Imperial Preference under Lord Beaverbrook became incredibly popular because of growing world trade issues due to Great Depression. more industrial goods began to be exported like locomotives, railway carriages and motor vehicles
- imperial exports as % of total British exports went from around 37% in 1913 to 44% in 1934
- Ottawa Conference of 1931 was important for imperial trade as British introduced 10% tax on all imports but Crown colonies were exempted and Britain and dominions gave each other’s exports preferential treatment in own markets

exports and imports to and from India and Burma fell as they began to rely more on Japanese markets
- British exports to India and Burma went from around 12% in 1909-13 to 8% in 1934-38
- British imports from India and Burma began to decline slowly though were never high

dominions relied heavily on imperial preference as Australia and New Zealand’s economic crisis were becoming significant
- exports to dominions went from around 18% in 1909-13 to around 26% in 1934-38
- imports from dominions went from 14% in 1909-13 to around 25% in 1934-38

Question 16

what was the economic impact of WW2?

Answer 16

German U boat attacks on British sea traffic devastated British trade. Britain lost overall 11.7 million tons of shipping or 54% of country’s merchant fleet strength

loss of Singapore in South East Asia and other major colonies disrupted trade and cut off vital supplies of raw materials such as rubber from Malaya

industrial production of producing weapons of war meant less produced for export. Britain tried reducing imports by increasing home production but was in trade deficit

1/3 of Britain’s foreign assets were sold off and Britain has to rely on Lend-Lease program, where USA supplied Britain

Britain has to rely on empire for imports. considerable investment by colonial governments, for example in Africa (Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme), to help increase supply foodstuffs and raw materials. where colonies weren’t economically beneficial (India, Burma, Palestine), Britain let them go
- Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 wrote off some colonial debts, provided colonial grants or loans of up to £5 million per year
- further act in 1945 increased aid available to colonies to £120 million over 10 years and required 10 year development plans to allocate funds

Question 17

what was the role and influence of Gandhi

Answer 17

campaigned in South Africa in 1890s-1910s for rights of Indians settled in the area against British and Boers

returned to India in 1915 and became president of Indian National Congress. travelled country, supported popular protests and mediated disputes. began campaigning for full independence after the Amritsar massacre

organised Non Co-Operation Movement of 1920, the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-31 and 1932-34 (the salt march also known as satyagraha, over 80,000 jailed), Quit India Movement of 1942 (where thousands attached railway stations, post offices, destroyed police stations and government buildings)

imprisoned by British and strongly opposed partition of India. expressed basic principles for Indian Home-Rule in 1909 and believed in satyagraha - peaceful protest

preached harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims arguing tolerance should be cemented. rejected divisions amongst caste system and wanted India to remain predominantly agricultural, building India on spiritual principles

significant as he enhanced the idea of an ‘Indian’ identity, ignoring principles of culture and religion - western, liberal values. hard for British to condemn his ‘non-violent protest’ methods as otherwise they’d look oppressive

significant also as Hitler said to Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in 1937 that to stop Indian nationalisation, they should ‘shoot Gandhi’

Question 18

what was the role and influence of colonial administers?

Answer 18

in 1925, Colonial Office split into Dominions Office and Colonial Office. 3 cabinet members were responsible to government of empire
- dominions recruited and appointed own civil services but British Crown still appointed governor-general until Statute of Westminster when dominions became autonomous
- colonial services thus unified in 1930 so individuals not directly appointed to different governments. quality of appointments improved, particularly in Africa. typically recruited from public schools. pay varied enormously

administrators began being seen as more of a form of ‘trusteeship’, particularly in Africa where they were expected to protect native interests - eventually leading to self-rule. however, developing these colonies meant that ambitious, young, indigenous leaders took high positions of authority
- in 1945, more Indians in Indian civil service than British

Question 19

Edward Montagu

Answer 19

colonial administrator

served as Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921

responsible for reforms leading up to GIA 1919, giving Indians limited degree of political representation and control of some aspects of provincial government

Question 20

Sir Harry Haig

Answer 20

colonial administrator

lifelong colonial administrator in India, following appointment as member of Viceroy’s Executive Council

example of emergent colonial administrator who was coming to terms with idea of Indians as parters in India. described Gandhi as a ‘menace’

Question 21

Lord Linlithgow

Answer 21

colonial administrator

served as Viceroy of India from 1935-1943. longest Viceroy in Raj

promoted GIA of 1935. believed further reform would weaken radical elements of nationalism and give rise to ‘more responsible’ politicians, who would see wisdom of working with British towards goal of self-government

Question 22

Sir Donald Cameron

Answer 22

colonial administrator

came from humble beginnings but contacts with Lord Lugard gave him high advancements

a good example of someone who believed in trusteeship principle. promoted exports of ground nuts and palm oil in Nigeria and in Tanganyika, building of harbours and railways. sought to advance colonies economically and supported entry of indigenous people into civil service but favoured gradual path to self-rule

Question 23

William Hailey

Answer 23

colonial administrator

typical public-school Oxford administrator who has a long career in civil service of Raj

key participant in Round Table conferences leading yp to GIA

travelled over 20,000 miles for Royal Institute of International Affairs to produce ‘African survey’ in 1938 that proved a highly influential study for future British policy

Question 24

Sir Philip Mitchell

Answer 24

colonial administrator

typical administrator of inter-war years but showed versatility

posted in Nyasaland, Tanganyika and fulfilled trusteeship in Uganda in 1935 when he extended Makere college and worked to create educated African elite - Makere was technical college and became prime centre for higher education in East Africa

Question 25

Sir Charles-Arden Clarke

Answer 25

colonial administrator

typical of many who rose to prominence in colonial service. born to missionary family and entered colonial service in 1920

worked across Africa and helped guide independence to Gold Coast in 1957

Question 26

Sir Andrew Cohen

Answer 26

colonial administrator

public school Oxbridge administrator whose interests were in Africa. sympathy for plight of native African peoples and was on of earliest to understand need for decolonisation

worked with African nationalists in South Africa and also helped secure independence for Uganda

Question 27

Sir Ralph Furse

Answer 27

colonial administrator

responsible for 1930 reform of appointments to colonial service and became director of recruitment. reforms helped establish standard system of recruitment and training. called ‘father of the modern Colonial Service’

Question 28

how was imperialism represented in popular culture?

Answer 28

British population bombarded by imperial imagery, much encouraged by British government. Empire Marketing Board set up in 1926 following efforts of Leo Amery promoted consumption in Britain of items produced in Empire through posters and advertising campaigns. became incredibly active during the Great Depression

exhibitions staged, such as Wembley Exhibition of 1924 to which British government contributed 2.2 million - over 17 million attended in 1924 and 9 million in 1925
- national pavilions designed in style of countries represented and said to be possible to do Empire in a day. the Prince of Wales agreed for exhibition ‘to enable all who owe allegiance to the British flag to meet on common ground and learn how to know each other’

imperial exhibition in Glasgow in 1938 attracted 12 million and booted Scottish economy

establishment of BBC who took pro-imperial stance was useful. Christmas broadcasts from 1932 with the King’s speech, who had some 10 million listeners in first broadcast. historian John Mackenzie said this aided British public to be aware of what was going on in Empire - i.e. Amritsar Massacre

prominence in education, forming focal point for teachings of geography, history and literature. works of Rudyard’s Kipling widely used. historical study of empire became established at universities and universities also trained colonial servants

children’s literature and works of G.A. Henty remained popular. films such as The Four Feathers in 1939 portrayed Empire as a backdrop of adventure

composers still produced imperialist music. 1924 Empire Exhibition, the works of Edward Elgar used as he conducted mass choirs. other songs like ‘Mad Dogs’ by Noel Coward were more mocking of British ideas towards Empire

commercial advertising often used to promote empire goods. companies like The Cooperative Wholesale Society supplied retail societies with goods all over empire. conservative government after winning election in 1931 promoted people to ‘buy British’

Question 29

how was empire represented in the years 1914-1947 and to what extent were imperial ideals prevalent in Britain?

Answer 29

changes in mass media increased way in which empire could be represented to people in Britain. changes in messages conveyed as explicit jingoism lost attraction after horrors of WWI. empire represented as more of a family of nations

empire day celebrations sought to create sense of belonging to family of nations, owing allegiance to same monarch. participant wore national dress however some did not respond to these events as much as others did. Tommy Wray from Leeds of Empire Day said ‘24th May was empire Day. we, as children, didn’t know what it meant; all we knew was it meant a party in the street’

during early stages of WWII, believed important to promote positive images of empire, given the importance of empire and commonwealth to war effort. ministry of information films such as 49th Parallel and West Indies Called stressed need for tolerance and understanding of other ethnicities in Europe

pro-imperial propaganda perhaps suggests Empire was not as well known in Britain and not popular. differences in social classes also meant different extent of imperial ideals as members of affluent middle classes had family employed in colonial services or others involved in trade with empire. many working class had no personal interest in empire as it held not much relevance in their lives

Question 30

how did protest and conflict erupt in Ireland?

Answer 30

prospect of civil war loomed over Ireland due to religious divide between six protestant countries of north and majority Catholic south threatening to wreck 1912 Home Rule Bill granting Irish independence

in March 1914, British soldiers at Curragh mutinies, refusing to take action to enforce Home Rule on hostile north. both sides, Ulster Volunteers and Irish volunteers, armed. 3 deaths and many casualties in July 1914 and Home Rule had to be suspended for duration of war

protest escalated during war and southern pro-independence organisation, Sinn Fein, organised an unsuccessful rising in Dublin during Easter 1916. leaders of Dublin Uprising killed and mood in Ireland was low

Sinn Fein won 70% of the total Irish seats in the 1918 General Election, but were still in the minority in Ulster, where the Unionists were the majority. Sinn Fein refused to take their seats in Westminster, and instead govern Ireland and Dublin

declared an independent Irish republic and established a government in Dublin - likely to lead to war with Britain; Westminster government willing to offer nationalists only limited powers of self government. Irish volunteers became Irish Republican Army and began guerrilla war against British, who reinforced Royal Irish Constabulary with ‘Black and Tans’
- Black and Tans were force of temporary policemen who recruited to assist Royal Irish Constabulary. many were WWI veterans and improvised uniforms worn, composed of khaki and RIC green

the volunteers attacked government property, carried out raids for separately needed weapons and funds and, to disrupt the British administration, assassinated prominent individuals. in the course of the Anglo-Irish War, 15,000 volunteers were actively involved, with around 3,000 in service at any given time

conflict ended in 1921 with signing of Anglo-Irish treaty, which created Irish Free State after events of Bloody Sunday. 6 Northern counties used legal right to ‘opt out’

conflict was not over singe Eamon de Valera, one of principle Irish leaders, refused to accept treaty, partly because Irish Free State was not republic and because it involved splitting country. brought further Irish Civil War which ended in 1923 with defeat and republicans

Southern Ireland treated as dominion, gaining equality of status in Statute of Westminster. Valera still not satisfied and his protest continued, refusing to attend Imperial Conference of 1937 and drew up new constitution which turned Ireland into republic – Eire. Adopted policy of neutrality during WWII and in 1948, became Republic.

Question 31

how did protest and conflict erupt in India

Answer 31

conflict in India both during and in aftermath of WWI, though mainstream political leadership in India was loyal. anti-British outbursts still occurred in Bengal and Punjab and expatriate Indians tried to encourage uprisings in India, with Irish republican, German and Turkish support. various attempts made to provoke mutiny in Indian Army, including 1915 Ghadar Conspiracy and Singapore Mutiny, a 7-day mutiny against British in Singapore

eruptions occurred after GIA 1919 as many nationalists felt let down by the treaty, the Congress president called it ‘unsatisfactory’ and ‘disappointing’. Rowlatt Act passed, which allowed authorities to arrest people without trial

conflict erupted in Punjab at Amritsar massacre. Brigadier -General Reginald Dyer opened fire upon a crown containing mixture of Indians who gathered to protest against arrest of two nationalist leaders. British government claimed 379 killed and 1200 wounded by Congress put deaths at 1000 with 1500 wounded. Dyer censured and resigned and British public opinion remained divided. helped galvanise support for Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement

further conflict occurred in Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, where non-cooperation movement has police open fire. demonstrators attacked police station and 3 civilians died

protest remained cool over next 25 years thanks to Gandhi’s belief in non-violence. Salt March wasn’t particularly fiery, though 80,000 protestors sis get arrested. muslim league however grew in 1930s and became increasingly militant

failure of Quit India campaign. wave of violence swept country as Hindus and Muslims fought for independence, rejecting Britain’s offer for Dominion status by Stafford Cripps. 200,000 people participated in Quit India though lacked from inefficient leadership in clear goals - in Gandhi’s speech beginning the campaign, he did not outline any particular path for India as opposed to practical in comparison to leaders like Nehru and Bose

After campaign, various floggings took place and hundreds were killed

Question 32

how did protest and conflict erupt in the Egypt?

Answer 32

countrywide revolution by Egyptians and Sudanese against British occupation in 1919, after British exiled nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul and other members of party. widespread civil disobedience. attacks on British military bases, civilian facilities and personnel, in which villages were burnt and railways destroyed. 800 Egyptians killed and 1600 wounded

Milner report granted Egypt independence in. 1922 but relations remained strained as Egypt failed to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty or to withdraw its forces. 1936 treaty did not even allow forces to be withdrawn

Question 33

how did protest and conflict erupt in Palestine?

Answer 33

tensions with Jews escalates as they formed the Haganah, an underground militia that became the national army of Isreal and Stern Gang, which waged open war on both British and Arabs

by 1945, open conflict occurring and in 1947, British handed Palestine back

Question 34

what was colonial identity?

Answer 34

concept that due to decades of colonial rule, identity as a ‘colonial’ emerged

colonisation affected ways people saw themselves and the world. British colonisers had adopted deliberate policies, often aimed at ‘civilising; those colonised

British and European ideals were forced upon indigenous peoples with some cooperating and some never accepting it. reacted to colonial rule by the way they were treated. those who enjoyed economic growth and prosperity under Briar’s rule tended to see themselves positively whereas those who had negative rule saw themselves more negatively

events like Empire Day and Coronation of Georgia VI in 1937, which were widely celebrated, showed loyalty to Empire so perhaps there was colonial identity

Question 35

how did Indian nationalism develop?

Answer 35

fall of Russian empire after WWI in Russian revolution demonstrated political power of masses, range hope of Arab and Indian nationalists. WWII saw similar precedent after Japanese Empire fell. Indian Congress Movement, already well-established before WWI, grew in post-war years due to unsatisfactory GIA 1919. peaceful protests under leadership of Ghana included boycotting elections in 1920s

Jawaharlal Nehru, lawyer who became ally and friend to Gandhi, had different views of Gandhi. sought modernisation and industrialisation whereas Gandhi an agricultural, rural-based society. Nehru diverge form Gandhi over support for British during WWII. Gandhi’s view ultimately far from accepted by Indian nationalist. untouchables leader criticised Gandhi;s refusal to reject caste system completely, even though Gandhi called for equality within

Nehru’s rival for leadership of Congress Party in 1930s, Subhas Chandra Bose, wanted INC to adopt more militant line. in 1939, allied himself with Britain;s enemies, Germany and Japan and in 1943, formed Indian National Army

all India Muslim League arose in 1906, working in cooperation with Congress in nationalist struggle. under Muhammed Ali Jinnah’s leadership, it grew more vociferous in representation of India’s Muslim minority. disagreed with Gandhi’s tactics and campaigned for establishment of safeguards for Indian Muslims. in 1930, Dr Muhammad Iqbal as a solution suggested state of Parkistan: Punjab, North-West Frontiers Province, Sind and Baluchistan

ultimately Indian nationalism was effective though very divided

Question 36

how did West African nationalism develop?

Answer 36

colonies of Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone and Gold Coast had legislative councils by 1914, though powers limited and African representation minimal. prompted group of political activists from all territories to hold meeting in Accra to found National Congress of West Africa in 1919 - dominated by educated elite in Gold Coast and movement supported by middle class lawyers, teachers and doctors who has Western educations

Congress demands for greater representation initially ignored through some concessions granted in 1920s. however, nationalists outnumbered by appointed (rather than elected) African chiefs from interior colonies on councils

growth of ‘trusteeship’ approach to colonial administration, radical group of West African Students’ Union (WASU) founded in 1925 bringing students from Western African countries at time of growing Indian nationalism. amongst members were Nnadmi Azikiwe and Kwame Nkrumah from Gold Coast, both who emerged as post-colonial figures

WWII accelerated these trends and brought faster economic development to colonies. in 1945, Pan-African Congress convened in Manchester and called for ‘autonomy and independence’ of black Arica, inspiring black people all the way to South Africa

organisation for African Unity in 1963 built on this and Nkrumah became a cornerstone for independence movements across Africa

Question 37

how did East African nationalism develop?

Answer 37

harry Thuku, an influential kikuyu who was missionary educated, developed Young Kikuyu, a non-militant organisation set up to recover Kikuyu lands that were lost when Kenya became British crown Colony in 1920

in 1921, went on to found East African Association, a larger and more representative organisation. Jomo Kenyatta joined in 1922 and movement gradually broadened

WWII had radicalising effect and Thuku helped establish Kenya African Study Union, which in 1946 became Kenya African Union. Kenyatta became president in 1947 and became a key role in decolonisation