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Bio 152 > Section 2: Plant Biology > Flashcards

Section 2: Plant Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What are nonvascular plants

A

plants without a vascular system consisting of xylem and phloem.

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2
Q

Examples of nonvascular plants

A

Liverworts, hornworts, mosses

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3
Q

what are vascular plants

A

plant with vascular systems, xylem and phloem (tracheids).

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4
Q

Examples of vascular plants

A

lycophytes, pteridophytes, cyrads, ginkos, conifers, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

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5
Q

what do lycophytes and pteridophytes have in common

A

seedless, lignin, roots and leaves, and have tracheids.

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6
Q

what is the difference between lycophytes and pteridophytes

A

lycophytes: seedless, lignin, roots and leaves, and have tracheids; roots are forked.
Pteridophytes: more vascularized and have branched roots.

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7
Q

What is special about angiosperms

A

they are the most evolved plant, they have 4 times the amount of vascular systems

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8
Q

how are angiosperms the most evolved

A

Flowering plants are able to survive in a greater variety of habitats than gymnosperms. Flowering plants mature more quickly than gymnosperms, and produce greater numbers of seeds. The woody tissues of angiosperms are also more complex and specialized.

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9
Q

what does xylem do

A

transports water

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10
Q

what does phloem do

A

transports nutrients and minerals

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11
Q

what do angiosperms have that other plants don’t

A

flowers and fruits

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12
Q

what is the shoot

A

the stem and the leaves

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13
Q

what is a shoot system

A

multiple stems and leaves of the same plant

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14
Q

what is a root system

A

all of the plant’s roots

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15
Q

what does only a plant cell have

A

cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts.

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16
Q

what does a cell wall do for a plant

A

provides a structural framework to support plant growth and acts as the first line of defense when the plant encounters pathogens. The cell wall must also retain some flexibility, such that when subjected to developmental, biotic, or abiotic stimuli it can be rapidly remodeled in response.

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17
Q

what does a chloroplast do?

A

a plastid: membrane bound organelle.
Chloroplasts have pigments that can absorb light at certain intensities

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18
Q

what does a central vacuole do?

A

can make 80% of cell volume; usually filled with water; can store calcium, magnesium, pigments, etc. ; used to maintain cell shape.

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19
Q

what does an animal cell only have

A

lysosomes and centrioles

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20
Q

what is the difference between glycogen and cellulose/starch

A

glycogen is heavily branched; cellulose/starch have hydroxyl groups.

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21
Q

what shape is amylose

A

non branched

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22
Q

what shape are amylopectins

A

branched

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23
Q

what bonds do two starches have

A

glycosidic linkages

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24
Q

what does pectin do

A

helps fuse other cells together by attracting negative charges.
Also helps the growth and development of the plant stem.

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25
Q

what is a desmotubule

A

extension of ER going across plasmodesmata; involved in the lateral transfer of lipid molecules from one cell’s ER to another.

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26
Q

why does a plant need water structurally

A

to maintain turgidity

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27
Q

what is the middle lamella

A

a layer that cements together the primary cell walls of two adjoining plant cells. It is the first formed layer to be deposited at the time of cytokinesis. The cell plate that is formed during cell division itself develops into middle lamella or lamellum.

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28
Q

what does the central vacuole do

A

holds water for structural support and allows cell growth by turgor pressure

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29
Q

what does the auxin hormone do

A

the master hormone; promotes cell growth and elongation of the plant. In the elongation process, auxin alters the plant wall plasticity making it easier for the plant to grow upwards. Auxin also influences rooting formations.

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30
Q

what do cytokinin hormones do

A

promote cytokinesis

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31
Q

what do gibberellin hormones do?

A

promotes seed germination, root and shoot elongation, flowering, and fruit patterning; important for cell division and stem cell regulation.

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32
Q

what do microfibrils do

A

give plant cells its shape. Formed in stacks which allows the cell wall inside to grow a certain way; can grow up and down, sideways.

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33
Q

what is the meristem

A

are centers of mitotic cell division, and are composed of a group of undifferentiated self-renewing stem cells from which most plant structures arise. Meristematic cells are also responsible for keeping the plant growing.

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34
Q

what is the apical meristem

A

region of cells capable of division and growth in the root and shoot tips in plants. Apical meristems give rise to the primary plant body and are responsible for the extension of the roots and shoots.

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35
Q

what is dermal tissue

A

the covering on various plant parts (outside)

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36
Q

what is ground tissue

A

most of the plant’s body with a variety of functions (metabolically active tissue).

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37
Q

what is vascular tissue

A

form interconnected conducting vessels for water and nutrients.

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38
Q

what is the cortex of the plant

A

tissue of unspecialized cells lying between the epidermis (surface cells) and the vascular, or conducting, tissues of stems and roots.

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39
Q

what are the main organs of the plant

A

stem, root, leaves

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40
Q

what do all multicellular organisms do

A

carry out cell division, grow, differentiate/cell specialization, apoptosis

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41
Q

what might happen when a meristem cell divides?

A

one daughter cell might receive a protein signal to remain a meristem cell. The other daughter cell might go on to be ground or dermal cells.

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42
Q

what is the shoot apical meristem (SAM)

A

stem cells that continuously generates organs and tissues.

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43
Q

what is the root apical meristem (RAM)

A

a small region at the tip of a root in which all cells are capable of repeated division and from which all primary root tissues are derived (root growth source)

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44
Q

what is the protein SAM uses

A

wus

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45
Q

what is the protein RAM uses

A

wox

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46
Q

what is parenchyma

A

a type of simple permanent tissue that makes a major part of ground tissues in plants, where other tissues like vascular tissues are embedded. They are non-vascular and composed of simple, living and undifferentiated cells, which are modified to perform various functions.

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47
Q

what is collenchyma

A

a simple plant tissue, consisting of only one cell type. Collenchyma cells are elongated, living cells that occur especially in peripheral positions in leaves and stems of eudicotyledons where they provide mechanical support while they are still growing.

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48
Q

what is sclerenchyma

A

provide mechanical support and strength to the plants. They provide structural support to the plant organs. They form protective coverings around nuts and seeds. They are also a part of vascular bundles and form conductive tissues

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49
Q

what is a vascular bundle

A

a part of the transport system in vascular plants. The transport itself happens in the stem, which exists in two forms: xylem and phloem. transporting nutrients, growth signals, amino acids, and proteins between aerial and underground tissues.

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50
Q

what is a palisade

A

a layer of closely packed cells found under the upper epidermis and cuticle which is the outermost layer of a leaf. The definition of palisade is a layer of plant cells containing chloroplasts right below the cuticle and upper epidermis in plants. Palisade cells are columnar shaped.

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51
Q

what is spongy parenchyma

A

a spongy layer of irregular chlorophyll-bearing cells interspersed with air spaces that fills the interior part of a leaf below the palisade layer.

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52
Q

what are eudicots

A

angiosperms that have two seed leaves upon germination

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53
Q

how is the vascular tissue arranged in eudicots

A

ring arrangement

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54
Q

what are monocots

A

angiosperm which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon.

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55
Q

how is the vascular system arranged in a monocot

A

random vascular tissue throughout

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56
Q

what are leaf primordia

A

first leaves of a plant

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57
Q

what happens to monocots’ first leaves

A

they lose them

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58
Q

what do eudicots do with their first leaves

A

preserve them

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59
Q

What do primary meristems give rise to

A

secondary meristems

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60
Q

why is the upper portion of the leaf thicker and the cuticle waxy?

A

to protect itself from UV exposure

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61
Q

what are herbaceous plants

A

vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground.

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62
Q

what are woody plants

A

woody texture that have secondary growth

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63
Q

what do eudicots stem with

A

a single leaf and primate venation (main veins that radiate from base of the leaf).

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64
Q

what is pinnate venation

A

when there is a main vein in the middle of the leaf and several branches.

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65
Q

how do monocots stem?

A

they stem and leaf with parallel venation (only main veins going one direction)

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66
Q

what can compound leaves do?

A

survive in extreme heat because of the smaller leaves that are in abundance

67
Q

what is the cuticle of the leaf

A

on epidermis helps avoid desiccation.
Filters UV radiation, reduce microbe and animal attacks, self cleaning,
Waxy texture.

68
Q

what are trichomes

A

offer protection from excessive light, ultraviolet radiation, extreme air temperature, or attack by herbivores.
Can comes in various shapes and states with stem and leaves,
Filled with secondary metabolites (poison), secreted or stored.

69
Q

what are phytoalexins

A

low molecular weight antimicrobial compounds that are produced by plants as a response to biotic and abiotic stresses.

70
Q

what are guard cells

A

regulate stomatal opening and closing for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.

71
Q

what do leaves most do for the plant

A

photosynthesis

72
Q

what are other leaf shapes plants can have

A

Tendrils
Tough scales that protect buds
Poinsettia “petals”
Cactus spines

73
Q

what is primary xylem

A

the xylem that is formed during the primary growth from procambium of apical meristems.

74
Q

what is primary xylem made of

A

Unspecialized parenchyma cells.

75
Q

what do tracheids and vessel elements do

A

conduct water and dissolved minerals (not living cells).

76
Q

properties of tracheids

A

Tracheid xylem is dead, but extremely tough and acts like structure support.
Tracheids are small and vessel elements are large.

77
Q

what can happen to vessel elements

A

they can get embolisms, especially in the wintertime

78
Q

what is guttation

A

release embolism from vessels with water.

79
Q

what is primary phloem

A

a type of phloem that forms from the procambium during the primary growth. The primary growth is responsible for the growth in length in plants.

80
Q

what is the procambium

A

a meristematic tissue that enables the primary growth of a plant.

81
Q

what is the main function of primary phloem

A

Transports organic compounds and certain minerals.
Cells are alive unlike xylem.

82
Q

what is the primary phloem made up of

A

living sieve tube elements and companion cells that aid sieve tube elements metabolize

83
Q

what are supportive fibers in primary phloem

A

long sclerenchyma that runs along sieve-tube elements that provide protection and aid in packaging

84
Q

what are created by the companion cells

A

P protein and P protein RNA

85
Q

what do P proteins do

A

clot tubes if there is damage

86
Q

why does wood have tracheids

A

for water support

87
Q

what do resin ducts do

A

resin helps prevent attack by pathogens and herbivores.

88
Q

how does water and nutrients get passed 100 meters

A

capillary action; xylem and phloem work together

89
Q

what is transmembrane transport

A

involves proteins that will physically take whatever the plant needs and carry it through the root cells (ATP).

90
Q

what is symplastic transport

A

through the plasmodesmata

91
Q

what is apoplastic transport

A

water and minerals can go through cell walls of the layers on cells in roots; diffusion of water and minerals between cells.

92
Q

what is the casparian strip

A

a waxy, ribbon-like compound made out of phenol polymers and suborin; form a barrier to the apoplastic flux, forcing ions to pass through the selectively permeable plasma membrane into the cytoplasm, rather than move along the cell wall.

93
Q

what is the pith

A

a tissue in the stems of vascular plants. Pith is composed of soft, spongy parenchyma cells, which in some cases can store starch.

94
Q

what is wood composed of

A

all xylem

95
Q

what is the vascular cambium

A

a layer of meristematic cells (or initials) that arises between primary xylem and phloem;gives rise to secondary meristems, which give rise to xylems.

96
Q

what is the cork cambium

A

gives rise to secondary meristem, which gives rise to the phloem.

97
Q

what are the percent makeup of wood

A

25% lignin, 50% cellulose, 25% other types of polymers

98
Q

what kind of roots to eudicots have

A

taproots

99
Q

what are taproots

A

a main root that has little roots growing off.
Taproots are constructed in a way to anchor themselves.

100
Q

what kind of roots to monocots have

A

branched; no main root and random

101
Q

what is a quiescent cell

A

a cell that doesn’t grow but is still alive; acts like a barrier between downward growing cells and vascular cells.

102
Q

what are root caps

A

tip of the root that produces mucilage; made of parenchyma

103
Q

what are root hairs

A

long but thin hairs that stem from the root that absorb water and nutrients

104
Q

what are stem nodes

A

tissue that gives rise to the leaves

105
Q

what are internodes

A

area between the nodes; represent how much the plant has grown; indicate how large the plant might get.

106
Q

what are auxiliary meristems

A

tissues that produce branches and flowers

107
Q

what does the axil determine

A

the direction/angle of growth

108
Q

where does the auxin hormone come from

A

secreted by epidermal layer; meristem follows in layers

109
Q

where is the gibberellic acid hormone from

A

produced by the SAM; promotes cell division and growth

110
Q

do eudicots have petals or tepals

A

petals

111
Q

do monocots have petals or tepals

A

tepals

112
Q

how many petals do eudicots

A

4 or 5 (and combos of those numbers)

113
Q

how many tepals do monocots have

A

3 or combos of 3

114
Q

what are the male flower components

A

a stamen composed of an anther (sporangia) and filament

115
Q

how is pollen formed

A

Diploid cell undergoes meiosis, turning 1 cell to 4, and creates haploid microspores, which undergo a little bit of mitosis and give rise to pollen.

116
Q

what is pollen typically

A

a gametophyte

117
Q

what is a generative cell

A

a cell within the pollen spore that will divide into two cells to form sperm

118
Q

what is the pollen spore structure

A

pollen coat, cytoplasm, generative cell, nucleus, tube cell.

119
Q

what is the filament

A

vascular tissue that supplies nutrients from sporophyte (plant) through development of the anthers.

120
Q

what is the female pistil composed of

A

stigma, style, and ovary

121
Q

what does the ovary house

A

the ovules, 1 or more in ovary

122
Q

what is the sporangia tissue of female flowers

A

the ovules

123
Q

how is the female sporangia formed

A

A diploid cell undergoes meiosis, creating 4 haploid cells, but 3 cells die off and 1 cell undergoes mitosis and becomes a 7 cell gametophyte.

124
Q

what do the 7 cells do

A

One of the 7 cells is the egg, the cells surrounding the egg are synergistic cells, the other 3 are antipodal cells. The megaspore that holds the 7 cells have 2 nuclei called bilobed nuclei.

125
Q

what is the microphyte

A

entrance for the tube cell to the megaspore

126
Q

what is self pollination

A

when the pollen lands on the same plant’s stigma

127
Q

what is cross pollination

A

when pollen of one plant land on another plant’s stigma

128
Q

what happens if the s proteins are on the inside and match the genotypes of the ovules

A

the pollen will try to grow but RNAse will chop up the growth.

129
Q

what happens if the s proteins are on the outside and match the genotypes of ovules

A

s proteins on the stigma will immediately stop pollen growth.

130
Q

when is are the spores compatible

A

if the 4 genotypes don’t match (2 to 4 and 3 to 1)

131
Q

what does the pollen coat do

A

allows growth and fertilization; protection

132
Q

what does the tube cell do

A

will grow from the pollen sporophyte into the stigma, where it will work its way down to the ovary. The nucleus and the generative cells will be transported down the tube, they are now called sperm.

133
Q

how is the seed formed if spores are compatible

A

When one of the sperm reaches the egg through the micropyle, the embryo will turn to a zygote after undergoing mitosis. Alternation of generations will occur. The second sperm (the endosperm) will make up the nutritional tissue for the zygote. The embryo and the endosperm is referred to as the seed. (Double fertilization).

134
Q

what is the ovary called when filled with seeds

A

fruit

135
Q

what are the three mechanisms of pollination

A

wind, insects/animals, rain/watering

136
Q

why are the seed undergo a drying process

A

to stop metabolism until seed/embryo reaches the right environment

137
Q

what is the radicle

A

the first organ to appear when a seed germinates. It grows downward into the soil, anchoring the seedling.

138
Q

what is the cotyledon

A

seed leaf within the embryo of a seed. Cotyledons help supply the nutrition a plant embryo needs to germinate and become established as a photosynthetic organism and may themselves be a source of nutritional reserves or may aid the embryo in metabolizing nutrition stored elsewhere in the seed.

139
Q

what are plastids

A

double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of plants and algae; green

140
Q

what are protoplasts

A

isolated cells devoid of the cell wall.

141
Q

what are chromoplasts

A

Like plastids but have carotenoids and lack chlorophyll. Carotenoid pigments are responsible for different colours like yellow, orange and red colour

142
Q

what are leucoplasts

A

a colorless organelle found in plant cells, used for the storage of starch or oil.

143
Q

what stimuli do all plants respond to

A

light, gravity, water, movement of the sun, and touch.

144
Q

what is abscisic acid

A

It promotes the dormancy in seeds and buds.

145
Q

how is auxin transported

A

down to the root tip from the shoot in the vascular cylinder. Here it is redistributed to the root cortex and epidermis, and transported back up the root to the elongation zone, where it regulates the rate of cell elongation.

146
Q

what ancestral feature is retained in cycads and gingkoes; what are the constraints.

A

motile sperm with flagella; the plants need a lot of water in order to allow sperm to swim.

147
Q

why did the seed evolve

A

they are better at helping plants to survive than spores are. For example, seeds contain a food source to help the new plant grow.

148
Q

what are key innovations in plant evolution?

A

the increasing dominance of the sporophyte; green algae still have a dominant gametophyte

149
Q

what are vascular seedless plants

A

plants that contain vascular tissue, but do not produce flowers or seeds. In seedless vascular plants, such as ferns and horsetails, the plants reproduce using haploid, unicellular spores instead of seeds.

150
Q

how can plants refill embolized vessels

A

re-route water through nearby xylem, create new xylem or refill vessels to force the air bubbles to dissolve in water

151
Q

why are vessel elements prone to embolism

A

if the tension in the xylem conduits becomes too high, thus xylem cavitation can occur i.e., water column breakage. This results in the hydraulic disconnection of leaves and above-ground parts from roots because xylem conduits are filled with air and water vapor

152
Q

what is the cohesion-tension theory of water transport

A

The water ascent in trees is exclusively due to the transpirational pull from continuous water columns in the xylem conduit running from the roots to the leafs.

153
Q

what is the relationship between sieve tube cells and companion cells

A

Companion cells are associated with sieve elements through plasmodesmata and they together help in the transport mechanism in plants.

154
Q

why do land plants do alternation of generations

A

alternation of generations still allows sexual reproduction to occur. This greatly mixes the genes and increases the adaptability of the species. Sporophytes and gametophytes from different species also produce different types of spores and gametes.

155
Q

what is the sepal of a flower

A

green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom.

156
Q

what is the carpels of a flower

A

the ovule-bearing female reproductive organ of flowering plants

157
Q

what is the microsporangia

A

sporangia that produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes when they germinate.

158
Q

what is the megasporangia

A

the structure of a plant body which contains female reproductive organ . It can be called ovule . It consists of nucellus and integument .

159
Q

what is double fertilization

A

involves two sperm cells; one fertilizes the egg cell to form the zygote, while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei that form the endosperm. After fertilization, the fertilized ovule forms the seed while the tissues of the ovary become the fruit.

160
Q

what does the polar nuclei do

A

after an act of double fertilization forms triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm.

161
Q

what tissues make the seed coat

A

develops from sporophyte tissues of the parent plant that are called integuments, one or several layers of sporophyte tissue that form the outer layers of the ovule.

162
Q

what is the hypocotyl

A

the part of the stem of an embryo plant beneath the stalks of the seed leaves or cotyledons and directly above the root.

163
Q

what is apical-basal polarity

A

a specialised apical membrane facing the outside of the body or lumen of internal cavities, and a specialised basolateral membrane localised at the opposite side, away from the lumen.

164
Q

what is a protoderm

A

a thin outer layer of the meristem in embryos and growing points of roots and stems, which gives rise to the epidermis.

Bio 152 (5 decks)

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