Final Exam Flashcards
what range does endocrine signal
long distance
what range does juxtacrine signal
adjacent
what does paracrine signal
close proximity
what does autocrine signal
self stimulating
what is being signaled?
hormones, lipids, proteins, sometimes gases.
what is metabolism
The sum of all reactions, catabolic and anabolic reactions.
Refers to all the bodily activities and chemical reactions in an organism that maintains life.
what is catabolic reactions
breaks down compounds; generates energy (ATP).
what are anabolic reactions
creating compounds; consumes energy (ATP).
what is metabolism related to
body temperature
what is metabolic rate
Rate at which an organism uses energy to power these reactions.
what does leptin do
a hormone that is secreted in order to feel satiated; long term.
what does ghrelin do
a hormone that is secreted before eating for salivation; short term.
what is the metabolic pathway
Protein A to Amino Acid B through enzyme X, so on and so forth by enzyme Z and Y until we get the final product.
pathway for glucose
Glucose is broken down, releasing ATP through each step, resulting in CO2 and H2O.
what two phases are used for nutrient utilization
absorptive and postabsorptive
what is the absorptive phase
occurs when ingested nutrients enter the bloodstream from the GI tract.
Some of the ingested nutrients are used for immediate energy needs, others stored.
About 4 hours.
what is the postabsorptive phase
occurs when the GI tract is empty of nutrients, and body’s stores are used.
About 12 hours, but can go up to 2 weeks.
what are the main sources of nutrition
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Carbohydrates: mostly glucose; sometimes other sugars.
Lipids: Triglycerides; sometimes other fats.
Proteins: amino acids are broken down into ATP if starving; amino acids that are taken in are broken down into triglycerides.
what are the two most important metabolic organs
pancreas and liver
what does the liver do metabolically
filters toxins that are consumed; stores glucose in the form of glycogen; generates bile that emulsifies toxins to be secreted.
what does the pancreas do metabolically
makes and secretes key digestive enzymes, like amylase; also makes and secretes bicarbonate that neutralizes stomach acid.
what do glycosidic bonds do
Glycosidic bonds alpha 1 and 4 break down glycogen; alpha 1 and 6 break down starch.
what sugar does the skeleton store
glycogen
what two organs need energy constantly
heart and brain
what energy will the brain use
only sugar
what energy will the heart use
any energy
difference between liver and muscle sugar retention
liver shares the sugar while the muscles keep it.
what happens when glucose is broken down
made into maltose, which is 2 glucoses
what is a sucrose molecule made from
fructose and glucose
what is a lactose molecule made from
glucose and galactose
what sugars are disaccharides
maltose, sucrose, and lactose
which sugars are monomers
glucose, fructose, galactose
what happens to the sugar the liver cannot store
converted into fat
what is most sugar made into
used to synthesize ATP
what are major sugar polymers
glycogen and starch
what is lipase
an enzyme that digests fats
what is a micelle
aggregation of lipids in water (3 carbons with a phosphate attachment)
what are lipoproteins
store triglycerides, which together are called chylomicron, which can be released into the lymph vessels/bloodstream through exocytosis.
how are triglycerides digested
too large to diffuse across the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells.
Digested into monoglycerides and fatty acids.
Diffuse into intestinal epithelial cells.
Resynthesized
what happens to absorbed amino acids
Taken up by all body cells.
Used to synthesize proteins.
Excess amino acids not stored as protein.
Excess are converted by liver cells into fatty acids and then triglycerides.
Waste, especially urine, is nitrogenous due to excess amino acids.
Properties of vitamins, minerals, and water
Do not require digestion.
Absorbed in complete form.
fat-soluble vitamins follow pathways for fat absorption.
Small amounts of water are absorbed in the stomach but most in the small intestine.
what are the two types of vitamins and minerals
water soluble and oil/lipid based
examples of water soluble and lipid based vitamins/minerals
Water soluble: vitamin B and C (all versions).
Oil/Lipid: A, D, E, K; absorption is the same as lipids.
what happens during the postabsorptive phase
Synthesis of glycogen and fats slows and breakdown begins.
the liver produces glucose to maintain blood-glucose concentrations through the degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis) and the synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) from lactate, pyruvate, glucogenic amino acids (principally alanine), and glycerol.
Using fat instead of glucose for energy (glucose sparing).
5 mechanisms for generating glucose in bloodstream
Liver breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis) and converts it into glucose;
Muscles harvest their own glycogen and glucose; also use glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis is when cells make their own glucose through broken down lipids (lipolysis) to turn it into glucose.
Breakdown of proteins.
Glucose sparing: Fatty acids can be catabolized by many cells, especially aerobic muscle fibers.Glucose needs to get through the GLUT protein on PM. There are 14 different versions, but GLUT 1, 3, and 4 are the most important. Each GLUT has different glucose affinities. 4 has low affinity for glucose and is the only one requiring insulin, muscle and fat; GLUT 1 and 3 have high affinity. Insulin then binds to the receptor when glucose is detected in the body. Which will send a signal to the nucleus which will produce more activity for the GLUT proteins. Insulin helps digest the sugar.
what do neurons have a high affinity for
GLUT transporters
what does the rest of the body have a low affinity for
GLUTs
what is the definition of glucose sparing
the neurons and brain will always get priority for glucose. Whatever is left over is for the body.
where is insulin made
pancreas
what inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver.
insulin
What do GLUTs do
GLUTs transport glucose across the plasma membrane by means of a facilitated diffusion mechanism.
what stimulates glucose diffusion into cells
insulin
what is a calorie
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree celsius.
Kcals are commonly used.
How are carbohydrates digested, absorbed and stored?
absorbed into the small intestine. Once they’re absorbed, they’re processed even more by the liver and stored as glycogen. Other glucose is moved through the body by the bloodstream. The hormone insulin is released from the pancreas and allows the glucose to be used as energy.
How are lipids digested, absorbed and stored?
In the small intestines bile emulsifies fats while enzymes digest them. The intestinal cells absorb the fats. Long-chain fatty acids form a large lipoprotein structure called a chylomicron that transports fats through the lymph system.
Lipids are stored in the body in different forms such as, triglycerides, fat cells, cell membranes and lipoproteins.
How are proteins digested, absorbed and stored?
Mechanical digestion of protein begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach and small intestine. Chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach and ends in the small intestine. hydrochloric acid and enzymes called proteases break it down into smaller chains of amino acids. The pancreas secretes digestive juices into the small intestine, and these contain more enzymes to further break down polypeptides. The body can’t store protein, so once needs are met, any extra is used for energy or stored as fat.
Describe the different mechanism that mammals (humans) use to maintain glucose
homeostasis.
Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain homeostasis, where conditions inside the body hold steady. When a person’s blood sugar is too high, their pancreas secretes more insulin. When their blood sugar levels drop, their pancreas releases glucagon to raise them.
primary function of the circulatory system is
Transport necessary materials to the cells of an animal’s body.
Transport waste products away from cells so they can be released into the environment.
what are the three types of circulatory system
gastrovascular cavity, open circulatory systems, closed circulatory systems
gastrovascular cavity properties
ascular cavity
Body cavity with a single opening.
Jellyfish, anemones, hydras.
Food is digested in the cavity and absorbed into cells.
Wastes are excreted into cavities.
All of the animal’s body cells must be located near the cavity or in slender extensions.
Muscular efforts of the cell wall increase effectiveness.
Cell wall must be thin in order for exchange.
open circulatory system properties
Arthropods and some mollusks.
Basic components: hemolymphs (mixture of blood and interstitial fluid), vessels, one or more hearts.
Vessels open into the animal’s body cavity.
closed circulatory system properties
Blood and interstitial fluid are physically separated; differ in components and chemical composition.
Larger, more active animals need a high pressure to pump blood to all body cells.
Found in earthworms, cephalopods, and all vertebrates.
Advantages/features: redirects blood; always a heart (pump); cells within blood work as a defense mechanism (immune system); has the ability to repair; when growing, more vessels also grow; can adapt to metabolism; transportation.
solutes in gas exchange
O2 and CO2
what is single circulation
Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to the cells.
Blood picks up carbon dioxide and waste products.
Deoxygenated blood is returned by veins to the heart.
Examples: fish.
Heart valves prevent backwards flow.
what is double circulation
Major advantage of double circulation: two different blood pressures in two different systems.
CO2 blood comes from heart to lung, oxygenated by lungs, flows back into the heart, and oxygen is pumped out to the rest of the body.
The heart acts as a dual dump; still has the pulmonary and systemic pathways.
what is intermediate circulation
Two atria to collect blood.
Right atrium: blood from the body that is low in oxygen.
Left atrium: blood from the lungs that is oxygen-rich.
Pulmonary pathway: arteries go only to the lungs.
Systemic pathway: arteries go to the body.
Advantages: skin can carry out gas exchanges.
Disadvantages: CO2 reflow.
Examples: amphibians.
what is hemolymph
the major transport medium for the exchange of materials between cells, such as hormones, waste materials, and nutrients. Through its regulation of ionic and chemical composition, it maintains the proper internal environment for cells as an extracellular extension of intracellular fluids (INSECTS)
what is the atrium
heart chamber that receives blood into the heart and drives it into a ventricle, or chamber, for pumping blood away from the heart.
what is the ventricle
muscular chamber that pumps blood out of the heart and into the circulatory system.
what are the 3 components of blood
plasma, hematocrit, and buffy coat
what is the plasma
Plasma is 55% of all blood and is mostly water, but contains albumin, globular proteins (antibodies).
Gases include CO2 and O2.
Acids and bases are in the forms of molecules.
Nutrients include amino acids and sugars.
Other proteins include complement proteins (immune system).
what is the hematocrit
Hematocrit includes RBC, which is 45% of blood.
what is the buffy coat
The Buffy coat represents about 1% of blood; it contains white blood cells.
what are the two classes of WBC
lymphoid and myeloid
what does lymphoid do
make T and B cells, NK cells
what does myeloid make
makes macrophages (8-10%), neutrophils (62% of cells in the blood), basophils, eosinophils, Mast cells.
why do RBCs have a concave shape`
to exchange gases quicker
why is blood 38 degrees celsius
absorbs heat from muscles and distributes it
what are erythrocytes
immature RBCs, which have a nucleus and a mitochondria. When mature, RBCs will have no nucleus or mitochondria.
what is hemoglobin
a red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood of vertebrates. Its molecule comprises four subunits, each containing an iron atom bound to a heme group.
what is the creation of RBCs called
erythropoiesis
what is a hormone that promotes RBC creation
EPO
what are platelets made out of
megakaryocyte fragments
what are the steps for wound healing
Platelets stick to each other and form a platelet plug; collagen fibers also form.
Platelets send clotting factor signals to the bloodstream and attract more platelets.
Fibrogen is the precursor to fibrin.
Fibrin is triggered, which forms a meshwork; it acts like tape.
what is pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs. It transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart.
what is systemic circulation
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the deoxygenated blood returns through a system of veins to the right atrium of the heart.
what are the atrioventricular valves
The mitral and tricuspid atrioventricular (AV) valves separate the atria from the ventricles, and prevent backflow
what are the semilunar valves
half-moon-shaped leaflets of endocardium and connective tissues, situated between the aorta and the left ventricle and between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle. These valves permit blood to be forced into the arteries, but prevent backflow from the arteries into the ventricles.
what is the sinoatrial node
There is a pacemaker (SA node) in the right atrium that leaks ions so neurons don’t need to be used. Makes both atriums contract. Pacemaker contracts on its own.
what are arteries
pumps blood away from the heart
Large arteries to small arteries to arterioles to capillaries.
High pressure and high proteins.
Water and solutes leave capillaries.
blood vessels that carry blood away biggest to smallest
arteries to arterioles to capillaries
what are veins
vessels that bring blood back to the heart
Large veins to small veins to venules to capillaries.
Low pressure and high proteins.
Thinner and less muscular than arteries.
Need Help returning blood to heart, so smooth muscle contractions and valves inside veins that are squeezed by skeletal muscle return blood.
Water and solutes (albumin) enter capillary.
blood vessels that bring blood to the heart biggest to smallest
veins to venules to capillaries
What are capillaries
Capillaries are where gas exchange occurs.
Capillaries branch off, creating capillary beds, and converge together to become the venules.
Capillaries have thick lumens for muscle and elastic connective tissue, which helps blood move forward.
Cells are heavily reliant on capillaries, so capillaries will be everywhere.
Fenestrated capillaries have holes within the cells of capillaries.
what is the main function of the circultory system
to bring oxygen and nutrients to cells.
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what are lymph vessels
resemble veins and have openings that collect the excess water and solutes. Right before blood reaches the vena cava, the fluid is replaced.
what is ventilation
the flow of air into and out of the alveoli
what is true about oxygen
not easily dissolvable in water
cold water will make oxygen dissolve easier
ions/solutes in water will make it hard for O2 to dissolve
oxygen wants to go from high to low pressure
what are gills
respiratory membrane for aquatic animals; can be internal or external.
how do gills work
water runs through gills, which are filled with capillaries. dissolved oxygen goes through capillaries.
what is buccal pumping
when a fish takes water into its mouth and pushes it out.
what is ram ventilation
when the fish needs to have its mouth open and constant movement to create a current.
what are the 4 main respiratory systems
Body surface
Gills
Trachea
Lungs
common features of ALL respiratory systems
Moist surfaces for gas diffusion and dissolving
High SA for gas exchange
Extensive blood flow
Thin, delicate structure.
what is a trachea
prevalent in insects; found in their skin.
Trachea to tracheoles to muscle.
Allows for a high metabolism.
what are spiricles
openings on the body of insects that they breathe through
Distinguish between conducting vs. respiratory zones.
The conducting zone, which includes everything from the nose to the smallest bronchioles, moves air into and out of the lungs. The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli and moves the respiratory gases, that is oxygen and carbon dioxide, in and out of the blood.
what is positive ventilation
which lung distension occurs through increasing pressure in the airways.
what is negative ventilation
lung inflation by distending the rib cage and abdomen.
what are the two muscles used for breathing
diaphragm and intercostals
what happens when the diaphragm is relaxed
air is pushed out
what happens when diaphragm is contracted
air pushed in
why do intercostals contract
to increase chest volume
where does gas exchange happen in the lungs
alveoli
what is the terminal bronchiole
the last part of the conducting portion of the respiratory system; distributes air across all parts of the lung
what do alveoli do
moving air in and out of your lungs (ventilation)
oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange (diffusion)
pumping blood through your lungs (perfusion)
parts of the respiratory system
Cavity to trachea to bronchi and bronchioles to alveoli
what are alveolar type 1 cells
a complex branched cell with multiple cytoplasmic plates that are greatly attenuated and relatively devoid of organelles; these plates represent the gas exchange surface in the alveolus.
what are type 2 alveolar cells
defenders of the alveoli by secreting surfactant, keeping the alveolar space relatively free from fluid, serving as progenitor cells to repopulate the epithelium after injury, and providing important components of the innate immune system.
what is tidal volume
the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle
tidal volumes for the lungs
Tidal volume (regular breathing) is 500 mL.
Inspiratory reserve volume: 3100 mL.
Expiratory reserve volume: 1200 mL
Residual volume: 1200 mL
what is surfactant
a complex mixture of specific lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, which is produced in the lungs by type II alveolar epithelial cells. The mixture is surface active and acts to decrease surface tension at the air–liquid interface of the alveoli.
What is external vs. internal respiration?
External respiration, also known as breathing, involves both bringing air into the lungs (inhalation) and releasing air to the atmosphere (exhalation). During internal respiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the cells and blood vessels.
what does the nasal cavity do
humidify, warm, filter, and act as a conduit for inspired air, as well as protect the respiratory tract through the use of the mucociliary system. The nasal cavity also houses the receptors responsible for olfaction
what does the pharynx do
carries air, food and fluid down from the nose and mouth.
what does the trachea do
carry oxygen-rich air to your lungs. They also carry carbon dioxide, a waste gas, out of your lungs.
what does the bronchi do
distribute the air throughout the lungs until reaching the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs
what do nose hairs a mucus do
trap particles from entering your lungs
what are the 3 types of pathogens
Bacteria (extra and intra), viruses (intra), parasites (extra).
what do bacterial pathogens do
Major entry points through direct bodily contact, open wounds, inhalation, and ingestion.
what are viruses
Nucleic acids enclosed in a proteins coat.
Must infect the host cell to replicate.
May kill the host cell rapidly or lie in a dormant period.
May cause cancer.
what are parasites
Protists, fungi, worms.
damage the host by using host nutrients or secreting toxic chemicals.
what are innate defenses
the defense system with which you were born. It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.
properties of the innate defense
always ‘on’.
Includes the skin, mucus membranes, phagocytes, fevers, NK cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation.
The skin has a low pH and is very salty, secretes enzymes that can digest things.
Skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defense.
Everything else above is the second line of defense; found in your blood.
Nonspecific and protects against all foreign substances.
An inherent ability.
Does not require prior exposure to invaders.
Recognizes a general, conserved property that marks invaders as foreign.
what are adaptive defenses
consists of antibodies and lymphocytes, often called the humoral response and the cell mediated response. The term ‘adaptive’ refers to the differentiation of self from non-self, and the tailoring of the response to the particular foreign invader.
properties of the adaptive defense
must be turned ‘on.’
Includes B cells and T Cells.
Humoral immunity is B cells and cellular immunity is T cells.
Recognizes specific foreign substances.
Acts to immobilize, neutralize, or destroy foreign substances.
Amplifies inflammatory response and activates complement.
what are the Major Principles of the immune system
Recognition (innate)
Immune effector function (what mechanism is used to fight invaders)
Immune regulation (on/off switch)
Memory in order to remember pathogens for future exposures (adaptive immunity)
where are T and B cells taught
in the thymus and bone marrow; taught to not kill parts of the body
what happens when T and B cells mature
Selected for functionality and competence (in primary immune tissue); allowed to leave primary tissue
what is positive selection
when T and B cells are competent
what is tolerance
the immune system accepts your cells and does not attack your body; cells are taught tolerance
what is negative selection
when several cell types are removed, leaving the cell type of interest untouched.
what is the first line of defense
surface barriers, like skin and mucous membranes
what is the second line of defense
the non-specific phagocytes and other internal mechanisms that comprise innate immunity.
what is the third line of defense
the adaptive immunity
what are T cells
part of the immune system and develop from stem cells in the thymus.
what are CD8 cells
kill virus-infected cells and produce antiviral cytokines such as interferon gamma. In this way, CD8 T lymphocytes contribute to resisting primary and secondary viral infections.
what are CD4 cells
a type of white blood cell. They’re also called CD4 T lymphocytes or “helper T cells.” That’s because they help fight infection by triggering your immune system to destroy viruses, bacteria, and other germs that may make you sick.
activate all other killing cells; CD4 does not kill.
regulates/shuts down all other killing cells.
what are MHCs
group of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells that help the immune system recognize foreign substances
Class I MHC
found in all cells in the body, including immune; CD8 cells.
Class II MHC
found only in immune cells; can only activate CD4 cells.
what is tissue graphing based on
MHCs
what is MHC used for
recognition from the macrophages to the T cells.
what cytotoxins do CD8 cells have
perfins (makes holes in the cell) and granzymes (triggers apoptosis).
what cells do not have MHC
Neurons, ovaries, testes, and RBC
how many MHCs does it take to activate CD8 and CD4 cells
at least 50
what are the primary lymphoid tissues
bone marrow and thymus
what are the secondary lymphoid tissues
Tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, Peyer patches, lymphatic vessels.
properties of lymph nodes
only have two exits for fluid in order for cells to make contact with the pathogen.
Where immune responses take place (kill the pathogen).
what are leukocytes
part of the body’s immune system. They help the body fight infection and other diseases. Types of leukocytes are granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).
what are dendritic cells
A special type of immune cell that is found in tissues, such as the skin, and boosts immune responses by showing antigens on its surface to other cells of the immune system.
examples of dendritic cells
the skin; inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines.
what happens to T cells when exposed
they differentiate into helper, regulatory, or cytotoxic T cells or become memory T cells
what do B cells differentiate to when exposed to
plasma cell only
what are the most important phagocytes
macrophages and neutrophils
what are macrophages
specialised cells involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and other harmful organisms. In addition, they can also present antigens to T cells and initiate inflammation by releasing molecules (known as cytokines) that activate other cells.
what are granulocytes
A type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during infections, allergic reactions, and asthma. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are granulocytes.
What is clonal selection? What type of cells can undergo clonal selection?
Clonal selection is a process by which the body produces B and T cells to respond to infections. These cells each have unique receptors that allow them to identify specific pathogens.
what are compliment proteins
Kills microbes without phagocytosis.
Uses membrane attack complex (MAC) to create channels in microbial plasma membrane.
Causes microbes to burst.
How do antibodies help fight pathogens?
(i) binding to and blocking the pathogen’s receptors, thus causing neutralization of the pathogen, (ii) binding to the pathogen and activating complement, and (iii) binding to the pathogen and facilitating its opsonization and uptake by macrophages
How do T cells help fight pathogens?
Some T cells act as “killer” cells, attacking cells that have already been infected by a virus. Other “helper” T cells assist the immune system in creating antibodies through B cells.
What is the function of immune memory T and B cells?
maintain a heightened ability to mount a response to a recurrence of infection with the same pathogen. The antibody and memory T cells remaining in an immunized individual also prevent the activation of naive B and T cells by the same antigen.
feautures of memory T cells
They respond more rapidly and effectively to antigen exposure than naive cells.
features of memory B cells
long lifespan, high sensitivity to low doses of antigen, quick and robust proliferation, and rapid differentiation into plasma cells that produce high-affinity antibodies during the secondary response.
what are PAMPs
activate innate immune responses, protecting the host from infection, by identifying some conserved nonself molecules.
two ways to activate infalmmation
Damaged cells due to released content.
Immune cells can turn on inflammation with the breakdown of protein triggers.
characterization of inflammation
Redness, pain, heat, swelling (edema), acute
Blood is brought more to the site due to vessels swelling, bring more nutrients and immune cells. Blood also promotes faster repair and isolation.
Repair is delayed if cold or anti inflammatories.
what is interferon gamma
antimicrobial protein
Inhibits viral replication inside host cells.
Not specific to a particular virus.
what is the process for any invaded cell
Macrophage to MHC I to T Cell/CD8
what is the process for invaded immune cell
Macrophage to MHC II to T Cell/CD4.
what is the difference between BCRs and TCRs
B cells can recognize two ligands with Y-shaped receptors.
B Cell receptors also are secreted to the outside, which create antibodies.
Once a B cell is activated, it’s called a plasma cell.
3 stages for aquired immune response
Recognition of an antigen (epitome)
Epitome recognizes specific parts of the
pathogen instead of the whole thing.
Activation and proliferation of lymphocytes.
Clonal selection is when a B cell is proliferated
more because it recognizes the pathogen
specifically.
Effector function: attack against antigen.
Effector function is how they attack.
what do antibodies do
label pathogens, they do not kill
what do IgG and IgM do
most abundant immunoglobulins in mammals.
Provide bulk of specific immunity against bacteria
