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BIO140 > Section 2 > Flashcards

Section 2 Flashcards

1
Q

somatic nervous system vs. autonomic nervous system

A

somatic
-single neuron from CNS to effect organs
-heavily myelinated axons
neurotransmitter at effector: Acetylcholine(ACh)
-effector organ: skeletal muscle
effect: stimulatory
autonomic
-two-neuron chain from CNS to effector organ
-lightly myelinated preganglionic axon
-nonmyelinated postganglionic axon
-sympathetic neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine(Ne)
-parasympatheitc neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine(ACh)
-effector organ: smooth muscle, glands, or cardiac muscle
-effect: stimulatory or inhibitory depending on neurotransmitter and receptors on effector organs

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2
Q

cholinergic receptors

A

acetylcholine(ACh)

nicotinic: agonist, stimulated by nicotine, found in neuromuscular junction and ganglions of ANS
muscarinic: agonist, stimulated by the mushroom poison muscarine, found on targets of ANS

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3
Q

adrenergic rceptors

A

responds to norepinephrine and epinephrine
found on targets of sympathetic nervous system
named: beta 1, 2, 3, and alpha 1 and 2

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4
Q

where is the parasympathetic from

A

brainstem and sacral nerves

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5
Q

where is the sympathetic from

A

thoracic and lumbar nerves

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6
Q

sympathetic vs. parasympathetic

A

sympathetic
-CNS region: thoracic and lumbar
-general effect: fight or flight; stress
-length of effect: long lasting due to hormones
-specificity of effect: diffuse effect; hormones and branching
-length of post ganglionic neuron: long
parasympathetic
-CNS region: cranial and sacral
-general effect: general house keeping effect
-length of effect: short
-specificity of effect: 1 preganglionic neuron to 1 post -> very specific
-length of postganglionic neuron: short

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7
Q

parasympathetic pathway

A

– Long pre-gang neuron, reaches all the way to target
– Releases ACh -> binds to nicotinic receptor on post-gang neuron
– Short post-gang neuron near target or embedded in target releases ACh into muscarinic receptor on target

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8
Q

sympathetic pathway

A

– Short pre-gang neuron -> each pre-gang synapses with
many post-gang neurons
– Pre-gang releases ACh and targets nicotinic receptor on post-gang neuron
– Post-gang neurons are long can travel up or down 3 options:
• Most release norepinephrine to adrenergic receptor
• A few release acetylcholine to muscarinic receptors
• Adrenal medulla substitutes for post-gang neuron releases epi and norepi into blood diffuse effects

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9
Q

nervous controls system

A 
cell organ: neuron
chemical released: neurotransmitter
released into: synapses
target tissue: neurons, muscles(all 3 types), glands
signal type: frequency modulated
time course: quick on/off
action: direct
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10
Q

endocrine control system

A 
cell organ:gland
chemical released: hormone
released into: blood
target tissue: any cell
signal type: amplitude modulated
time course: slow on/ slow off
action: general
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11
Q

neuroendocrine

A 
cell organ: neuron
chemical released: neurohormone
released into: blood
target tissue: any cell
signal type: Frequency at neuron dictates amount of hormone released, amount of hormone dictates signal strength
time course: slow on/ slow off
action: general
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12
Q

Adenohypophysis: Hypophyseal portal

blood system

A

2 capillary beds connected by veins
-capillary bed in superior pituitary: takes up neurohormones from hypothalamus
-capillary bed in anterior pituitary: Drops off neurohormones from hypothalamus
Picks up hormones from anterior pituitary
-capillary bed in posterior pituitary: picks up post-pituitary hormones

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13
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)

A

posterior pituitary

stimulus: low blood volume or high osmolarity of blood (concentrated)
inhibition: high blood volume or low osmolarity
actions: Stimulate kidneys to retain more water, Causes thirst, Increase blood pressure

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14
Q

Oxytocin

A

posterior pituitary
stimulus: nipple stimulation (breast feeding), stretch of uterus, stimulation of cervix (sexual intercourse or labor)
actions: Smooth muscle contraction:
• Uterus (labor, menstruation)
• Cervix (to aid sperm propulsion during intercourse and to prepare for labor)
• Mammary glands (let-down reflex for breast feeding)

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15
Q

growth hormone

A 
Stimulate growth (protein synthesis) via insulin-like growth factors
stimulates fat breakdown
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16
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)

A

Tropic hormone (aka: thyrotropin)
• Stimulates release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
• Causes growth of thyroid gland

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17
Q

TSH Feedback Loop and Effects

A

hypothalamus -TRH-> anterior pituitary -TSH-> thyroid gland -thyroid hormones-> target cells

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18
Q

Prolactin(PRL)

A 
Stimulation:
– Estrogen during menstrual cycle -> brief prolactin release -> breast swelling
– Nipple stimulation by infant
effect:
– Stimulate milk production
in mammary glands
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19
Q

Prolactin feedback loop

A

hypothalamus –(decrease Dopamine)PIH–> anterior pituitary –increase prolactin–> milk production

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20
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A 
Stimulation:
– Fever, stress, low blood
glucose, daily rhythm
Main Effects:
– Stimulate the release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
– Growth of adrenal gland
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21
Q

ACTH loop feedback

A

STRESSOR -> hypothalamus -CRH-> anterior pituitary -ACTH-> adrenal -> cortisol(inhibits CRH)

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22
Q

thyroid gland

A

Very high blood flow
– 2 main types of cells:
• Follicular cells: produce thyroglobulin
– Around chamber in middle where thyroglobulin is stored
• Parafollicular cells (between follicles): produce calcitonin

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23
Q

hypothyroidism

A 
Cause
-Low TSH or damaged thyroid
-Low iodine intake -> can’t make 
hormones
symptoms
-weakness, fatigue, cold, weight gain, goiter (if low iodine)
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24
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

causes
-pituitary tumor -> Too much TSH (can also lead to goiter)
-thyroid tumor -> too much T3 and T4
symptoms
-Weight loss, always hot and sweaty, rapid irregular heart rate, nervousness, bulging eyes (damaged CT behind eyes, Graves only)
treatment
-Remove tumor or thyroid gland -> supplement hormones for life

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25
thyroid hormones
``` Triiodothyronine(T3) -contains 3 iodine molecules Tetraiodothyronine(T4) -contains 4 iodine molecules actions: – Increase metabolism • Increase mitochondrial activity • Increase protein synthesis – Involved in neural development ```
26
calcitonin
stimulus: high blood Ca2+ released by: parafollicular cells in thyroid Actions: – Stimulates: osteoblast activity – Inhibits: osteoclast activity – Resulting in: lower calcium in blood and increased bone calcium
27
parathyroid gland
Releases parathyroid hormone (PTH) – Most important factor in blood calcium balance Stimulus: low blood calcium Actions: – Stimulates: osteoclastic activity – Inhibits: osteoblastic activity – Increases Ca2+ uptake in gastrointestinal tract Results: – Increases plasma calcium – Decreases bone calcium
28
blood calcium homeostasis
high blood Ca2+ -> thyroid -calcitonin-> stimulates osteoblasts low blood Ca2+ -> parathyroid -PTH-> stimulates osteoclasts
29
adrenal hormones
Threeclasses: – Mineralcorticoids: mainly aldosterone • Function: control mineral levels in blood – Glucocorticoids: mainly cortisol • Function: control blood glucose levels, control metabolism – Gonadocorticoids: Androgens, mainly DHEA (converted to testosterone or estrogen after release)
30
Cortisol
``` Release Stimulus: – Stress release CRH – Circadian rhythm (highest in morning) Actions: – Increase blood glucose – Catabolic effects: • Protein, fat, and glycogen – Decrease inflammation – Essential to life Applications: • Cortisone injections ```
31
Cushing's Disease
• ACTH releasing pituitary tumor • Cortisone overdose • Buffalo hump, high blood sugar, muscle and bone wasting
32
Aldosterone
``` Stimulus -low blood pressure/volume -> renin form kidney -> angiotensin -High Blood K+ -Stress -> CRH -> ACTH Actions -Increased Na and water absorption in kidneys -Increased K secretion in kidneys Result -increased blood pressure/volume ```
33
mitosis vs. meiosis
Mitosis what cell: somatic cell daughter cell resemblance to parent: genetically identical daughter cell resemblance to each other: genetically identical # of chromosomes daughter vs. parent: same purpose: cell growth, replace dead or aging cells Meiosis what cell: sex cells daughter cell resemblance to parent: not identical daughter cell resemblance to each other: not identical # of chromosomes daughter vs. parent: half the # purpose: reproduction
34
Scrotum
Out pocketing of abdominal lining – Purpose: 3 C below body temp for sperm
35
cremaster
lifts testes | maintains temp
36
dartos
scrunches skin -> pulls testes closer to the body | maintain temp
37
Tunica Albuginea
in Testis White protective layer inside surrounds Seminiferous Tubule
38
Seminiferous Tubule
convoluted tubule | function: where sperm develop
39
epididymus
in testis Series of ducts, posterior portion of testis function: site of sperm maturation(become motile)
40
Ductus (vans) Deferens
in testis – Connection of spermatic chord to epididymis – Ascends through inguinal canal into abdominal cavity – Surrounded by blood vessels, nerves and smooth muscle
41
ejaculation
caused by smooth muscle contraction squeezing out semen from vas deferens and spermatic chord
42
ejaculatory duct
- where the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle meet (before the urethra) - wall is lined with smooth muscle foe ejaculation
43
urethra
duct for semen and urine
44
seminal vesicle
Posterior to bladder – 70% of semen comes from here – Secretes alkaline fluid with fructose
45
prostate gland
Inferior to bladder, surrounds urethra
46
bulbourethral glands
pea-sized, inferior to prostate – Secrete thick, clear mucous function: lubricate and neutralize pH of urethra prior to ejaculation
47
Penis
Three regions: – Root: portion of shaft posterior to abdominal wall (inside) – Body (shaft): external shaft – Glans: enlarged tip, many sensory receptors • Covered by prepuce (foreskin)
48
erection
parasympathetic nerves lead to nitric oxide release -> dilate arteries -> fill sinuses which smashes drainage veins -> engorgement of penis
49
erectile dysfunction
Cause: Damage to the artery walls with aging is the most typical cause • Treatment: cialis or viagra -> increase effect of nitric oxide
50
LH hormone
– Stimulate leydig cells to release testosterone
51
FSH hormone
Stimulate sertoli cells to release chemical to aid in sperm development and production • Stimulate sertoli cells to release inhibin
52
testosterone
– Aids in sperm development – Secondary male sex characteristics: • Facial and pubic hair, deep voice, increase muscle mass
53
Inhibin
– Negative feedback to inhibit GnRH and FSH – Controls the rate of sperm production
54
anabolic steroids
• Testosterone precursors or testosterone itself • Hypothalamus senses high testosterone -> stops GnRH -> no LH or FSH release purpose: build muscle mass
55
anabolic steroid side effect
• Infertility: – Why: no LH or FSH sertoli cells stop working and even die can lose blood barrier • Cardiovascular disease: – High cholesterol – Unhealthy thickening of the heart muscle • Liver Damage: liver metabolizes steroids • Emotional changes: rage, instability, depression • Gynecomastia: – Extra testosterone is converted into estrogen breast development • Ulcerated acne: – Sebaceous glands are stimulated by testosterone
56
ovaries
Gonads of the female: contain gametes | • Protected by: tunica albuginea
57
nurse cells
granulosa cells • Organized into follicles (cavity encompassing egg) • Surround eggs to help development (similar to sertoli) – Many for 1 egg – 1 sertoli for many sperm • Produce estrogen
58
thecal cells
Located between follicles | Function: Secrete androstenedion that turns into estrogen
59
Uterine Tubes (oviducts; Fallopian Tubes)
– Inner layer: Ciliated columnar epithelium • Function: To move eggs – Smooth muscle middle layer • Function: to move eggs and catch eggs – Fertilization usually occurs in uterine tubes
60
Uterus
Inner layer: Endometrium – Mucous membrane, well vascularized, many glands – Cycles of development and necrosis of surface epithelial tissue (driven by hormones) – Function: site of implantation and fetal development Middle layer: Myometrium – Majority of the thickness of uterus – Smooth muscle, fibers oriented in all different directions • Function: push that baby out! Outerlayer:Perimetrium – Serous membrane on outer layer
61
vagina
``` mostly smooth muscle and membrane • Lined by mucous membrane (stratified squamous ET) function: -sexual intercourse -passageway for menstraul flow -birth canal ```
62
hymen
outermost portion of mucous membrane: mostly blocks opening of vagina in most virgins (may bleed upon breaking)
63
clitoris
``` erectile tissue (vascular anatomy similar to penis) – Controlled by: parasympathetic nervous system ```
64
labia majora and minora
Skin folds | – Function: provide protection for vagina and urethra
65
vestibular glands
behind labia | – Function: secrete lubricating fluid during and before intercourse
66
FSH
– Stimulates follicle growth | – Stimulates granulosa cells to release estrogen – Stimulates granulosa cells to release inhibin
67
LH
– Stimulates thecal (interstitial) cells to produce androstenedione (converted into estrogen) causes ovulation
68
estrogen
– Released from follicle in response to FSH | – Stimulates growth of endometrium in uterus
69
progesterone
– Released from corpus luteum | – Maintains endometrium
70
Inhibin
– Inhibits release of FSH and GnRH
71
menstrual phase
``` days: 1-5 GnRH: low, starting to rise • LH: low, starting to rise • FSH: low, starting to rise • Progesterone: decreasing • Estrogen: decreasing • Follicle: corpus luteum dies • Uterus: endometrium dies ```
72
proliferative phase
* Days: 5-13 * GnRH: higher * LH: higher * FSH: higher * Progesterone: very low * Estrogen: rising, still low * Follicle: growth * Uterus: growth
73
ovulatory phase
* Days: 14 * GnRH: surge * LH: surge * FSH: surge * Progesterone: rises after ovulation * Estrogen: very high, drop immed * Follicle: large, releases estrogen * Uterus: Still growing
74
secretory/luteal phase
* Days: 15-28 * GnRH: low * LH: low * FSH: low * Progesterone: high, from corpus luteum, inhibit 3 above * Estrogen: from corpus luteum, stays high * Follicle: endocrine organ, corpus luteum * Uterus :secretes mucous, prepares for implantation
75
pericardium
``` 2 layers: • Fibrous: very tough, prevents over expanding under high pressure (outermost layer) • Anchors heart to surrounding structures • Serous: 2 layered membrane with fluid in middle ```
76
epicardium
The heart side of the pericardium
77
pericardial cavity
Fluid filled space between the two layers of the serous membrane
78
myocardium
The cardiac muscle, contractile
79
endocardium
– Between myocardium and the heart chamber – Thin layer, epithelial tissue
80
atria
Receiving chambers pump blood to the ventricles
81
interatrial septum
separates left and right
82
foramen ovale
hole in interatrial septum of fetus
83
auricles
external portion, extend atria
84
ventricles
– Pumping chambers | – Much thicker walls, much stronger
85
What is the purpose of the papillary muscles in the heart?
To prevent the AV valves from turning inside out when the ventricles contract
86
Heart Valves | • Between atria and ventricles
Right side: tricuspid valve Left side: bicuspid valve (mitral) – Both have chordae tendinae attached to valve flaps and to papillary muscles
87
Heart Valves | • Between ventricles and associated arteries
Semilunar valves: Each have 3 (crescent moon shaped) cup like structures – Right side: pulmonary semilunar valve – Left side: aortic semilunar valve
88
What causes the AV valves to close?
pressure from blood inside ventricle
89
What causes the AV valves to open?
when pressure in ventricle dies down, pressure from blood coming in is greater(relaxation of ventricle)
90
What causes the semilunar valves to close?
left ventricle contracts, doesn't open til ventricle has higher pressure than valve
91
angina
Temporary blockage or partial blockage of a portion of an artery -> chest pain Causes: -stress induced artery spasms -atherosclerosis(coronary artery disease) Treatments: nitroglycerin
92
myocardial infarction
- Complete blockage of artery tissue death - Heart muscle does not heal - Causes: Atherosclerosis -> blockage or thrombus (clot from elsewhere) - Treatment: bypass surgery, stent
93
cardiac muscle fiber histology | -striated
sarcomeres identical to skeletal muscle
94
cardiac muscle fiber histology | -branched fibers
all connected
95
cardiac muscle fiber histology | -single nucleus
smaller cells
96
Many mitochondria (30% of volume, vs 2% in skeletal muscle)
high fatigue resistance
97
intercalated disks
between cells – Desmosomes: anchoring cells together – Gap junctions: allows ions to pass from cell to cell, action potentials pass from cell to cell
98
skeletal muscle | What causes an action potential?
permeability changes in membrane
99
what dictates an action potential in skeletal muscle?
voltage gated ion channels
100
cardiac action potential
• Starts in pacemaker cells (SA and AV nodes) • Passes through gap junctions from cell to cell • Resting membrane potential: – Balance: Negative inside – Inside: Potassium – Outside: Sodium • Depolarization: by Na+ rushing in • Plateau phase: Slow Ca2+ channels open Ca2+ rushes in • Repolarization: Slow K+ channels open K+ goes out
101
conduction pathway | sinoatrial(SA) node
– Location: Upper right atrium, by vena cava – Function: Pacemaker of heart – Causes: atrial contraction
102
conduction pathway | atrioventricular(AV) node
– Location: Next to tricuspid valve – Function: receives stim from atria sends signal to ventricles – Causes: slight pause (.1 sec) filling time
103
conduction pathway | atrioventricular(AV) bundle
– Location: superior interventricular septum | – Function: only connection between ventricles, carries signal to both
104
conduction pathway | bundle branches
– Location: Interventricular septum, one on each side
105
conduction pathway | purkinje fibers
– Location: All throughout ventricles and papillary muscles – Function: contract ventricles and papillary muscles – Very fast depolarization rate (100 times faster than the rest)
106
Heart sounds
* First Sound: “lub”, due to AV valves snapping shut. | * Second Sound: “dub”, due to SL valves closing

BIO140 (4 decks)

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