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BIO140 > Section 2 > Flashcards

Section 2 Flashcards

1
Q

somatic nervous system vs. autonomic nervous system

A

somatic
-single neuron from CNS to effect organs
-heavily myelinated axons
neurotransmitter at effector: Acetylcholine(ACh)
-effector organ: skeletal muscle
effect: stimulatory
autonomic
-two-neuron chain from CNS to effector organ
-lightly myelinated preganglionic axon
-nonmyelinated postganglionic axon
-sympathetic neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine(Ne)
-parasympatheitc neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine(ACh)
-effector organ: smooth muscle, glands, or cardiac muscle
-effect: stimulatory or inhibitory depending on neurotransmitter and receptors on effector organs

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2
Q

cholinergic receptors

A

acetylcholine(ACh)

nicotinic: agonist, stimulated by nicotine, found in neuromuscular junction and ganglions of ANS
muscarinic: agonist, stimulated by the mushroom poison muscarine, found on targets of ANS

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3
Q

adrenergic rceptors

A

responds to norepinephrine and epinephrine
found on targets of sympathetic nervous system
named: beta 1, 2, 3, and alpha 1 and 2

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4
Q

where is the parasympathetic from

A

brainstem and sacral nerves

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5
Q

where is the sympathetic from

A

thoracic and lumbar nerves

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6
Q

sympathetic vs. parasympathetic

A

sympathetic
-CNS region: thoracic and lumbar
-general effect: fight or flight; stress
-length of effect: long lasting due to hormones
-specificity of effect: diffuse effect; hormones and branching
-length of post ganglionic neuron: long
parasympathetic
-CNS region: cranial and sacral
-general effect: general house keeping effect
-length of effect: short
-specificity of effect: 1 preganglionic neuron to 1 post -> very specific
-length of postganglionic neuron: short

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7
Q

parasympathetic pathway

A

– Long pre-gang neuron, reaches all the way to target
– Releases ACh -> binds to nicotinic receptor on post-gang neuron
– Short post-gang neuron near target or embedded in target releases ACh into muscarinic receptor on target

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8
Q

sympathetic pathway

A

– Short pre-gang neuron -> each pre-gang synapses with
many post-gang neurons
– Pre-gang releases ACh and targets nicotinic receptor on post-gang neuron
– Post-gang neurons are long can travel up or down 3 options:
• Most release norepinephrine to adrenergic receptor
• A few release acetylcholine to muscarinic receptors
• Adrenal medulla substitutes for post-gang neuron releases epi and norepi into blood diffuse effects

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9
Q

nervous controls system

A 
cell organ: neuron
chemical released: neurotransmitter
released into: synapses
target tissue: neurons, muscles(all 3 types), glands
signal type: frequency modulated
time course: quick on/off
action: direct
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10
Q

endocrine control system

A 
cell organ:gland
chemical released: hormone
released into: blood
target tissue: any cell
signal type: amplitude modulated
time course: slow on/ slow off
action: general
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11
Q

neuroendocrine

A 
cell organ: neuron
chemical released: neurohormone
released into: blood
target tissue: any cell
signal type: Frequency at neuron dictates amount of hormone released, amount of hormone dictates signal strength
time course: slow on/ slow off
action: general
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12
Q

Adenohypophysis: Hypophyseal portal

blood system

A

2 capillary beds connected by veins
-capillary bed in superior pituitary: takes up neurohormones from hypothalamus
-capillary bed in anterior pituitary: Drops off neurohormones from hypothalamus
Picks up hormones from anterior pituitary
-capillary bed in posterior pituitary: picks up post-pituitary hormones

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13
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)

A

posterior pituitary

stimulus: low blood volume or high osmolarity of blood (concentrated)
inhibition: high blood volume or low osmolarity
actions: Stimulate kidneys to retain more water, Causes thirst, Increase blood pressure

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14
Q

Oxytocin

A

posterior pituitary
stimulus: nipple stimulation (breast feeding), stretch of uterus, stimulation of cervix (sexual intercourse or labor)
actions: Smooth muscle contraction:
• Uterus (labor, menstruation)
• Cervix (to aid sperm propulsion during intercourse and to prepare for labor)
• Mammary glands (let-down reflex for breast feeding)

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15
Q

growth hormone

A 
Stimulate growth (protein synthesis) via insulin-like growth factors
stimulates fat breakdown
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16
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)

A

Tropic hormone (aka: thyrotropin)
• Stimulates release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
• Causes growth of thyroid gland

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17
Q

TSH Feedback Loop and Effects

A

hypothalamus -TRH-> anterior pituitary -TSH-> thyroid gland -thyroid hormones-> target cells

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18
Q

Prolactin(PRL)

A 
Stimulation:
– Estrogen during menstrual cycle -> brief prolactin release -> breast swelling
– Nipple stimulation by infant
effect:
– Stimulate milk production
in mammary glands
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19
Q

Prolactin feedback loop

A

hypothalamus –(decrease Dopamine)PIH–> anterior pituitary –increase prolactin–> milk production

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20
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A 
Stimulation:
– Fever, stress, low blood
glucose, daily rhythm
Main Effects:
– Stimulate the release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
– Growth of adrenal gland
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21
Q

ACTH loop feedback

A

STRESSOR -> hypothalamus -CRH-> anterior pituitary -ACTH-> adrenal -> cortisol(inhibits CRH)

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22
Q

thyroid gland

A

Very high blood flow
– 2 main types of cells:
• Follicular cells: produce thyroglobulin
– Around chamber in middle where thyroglobulin is stored
• Parafollicular cells (between follicles): produce calcitonin

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23
Q

hypothyroidism

A 
Cause
-Low TSH or damaged thyroid
-Low iodine intake -> can’t make 
hormones
symptoms
-weakness, fatigue, cold, weight gain, goiter (if low iodine)
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24
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

causes
-pituitary tumor -> Too much TSH (can also lead to goiter)
-thyroid tumor -> too much T3 and T4
symptoms
-Weight loss, always hot and sweaty, rapid irregular heart rate, nervousness, bulging eyes (damaged CT behind eyes, Graves only)
treatment
-Remove tumor or thyroid gland -> supplement hormones for life

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25
Q

thyroid hormones

A 
Triiodothyronine(T3)
-contains 3 iodine molecules
Tetraiodothyronine(T4)
-contains 4 iodine molecules
actions:
– Increase metabolism
• Increase mitochondrial
activity
• Increase protein synthesis
– Involved in neural development
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26
Q

calcitonin

A

stimulus: high blood Ca2+
released by: parafollicular cells in thyroid
Actions:
– Stimulates: osteoblast activity
– Inhibits: osteoclast activity
– Resulting in: lower calcium in blood and increased bone calcium

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27
Q

parathyroid gland

A

Releases parathyroid hormone (PTH)
– Most important factor in blood calcium balance
Stimulus: low blood calcium
Actions:
– Stimulates: osteoclastic activity
– Inhibits: osteoblastic activity
– Increases Ca2+ uptake in gastrointestinal tract
Results:
– Increases plasma calcium – Decreases bone calcium

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28
Q

blood calcium homeostasis

A

high blood Ca2+ -> thyroid -calcitonin-> stimulates osteoblasts
low blood Ca2+ -> parathyroid -PTH-> stimulates osteoclasts

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29
Q

adrenal hormones

A

Threeclasses:
– Mineralcorticoids: mainly aldosterone
• Function: control mineral levels in blood
– Glucocorticoids: mainly cortisol
• Function: control blood glucose levels, control metabolism
– Gonadocorticoids: Androgens, mainly DHEA (converted to testosterone or estrogen after release)

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30
Q

Cortisol

A 
Release Stimulus:
– Stress release CRH
– Circadian rhythm (highest in morning)
Actions:
– Increase blood glucose
– Catabolic effects:
• Protein, fat, and glycogen
– Decrease inflammation 
– Essential to life
Applications:
• Cortisone injections
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31
Q

Cushing’s Disease

A

• ACTH releasing pituitary tumor
• Cortisone overdose
• Buffalo hump, high blood sugar,
muscle and bone wasting

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32
Q

Aldosterone

A 
Stimulus
-low blood pressure/volume -> renin form kidney -> angiotensin
-High Blood K+
-Stress -> CRH -> ACTH
Actions
-Increased Na and water absorption in kidneys
-Increased K secretion in kidneys
Result
-increased blood pressure/volume
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33
Q

mitosis vs. meiosis

A

Mitosis
what cell: somatic cell
daughter cell resemblance to parent: genetically identical
daughter cell resemblance to each other: genetically identical
# of chromosomes daughter vs. parent: same
purpose: cell growth, replace dead or aging cells
Meiosis
what cell: sex cells
daughter cell resemblance to parent: not identical
daughter cell resemblance to each other: not identical
# of chromosomes daughter vs. parent: half the #
purpose: reproduction

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34
Q

Scrotum

A

Out pocketing of abdominal lining
– Purpose:
3 C below body temp for sperm

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35
Q

cremaster

A

lifts testes

maintains temp

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36
Q

dartos

A

scrunches skin -> pulls testes closer to the body

maintain temp

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37
Q

Tunica Albuginea

A

in Testis
White protective layer inside
surrounds Seminiferous Tubule

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38
Q

Seminiferous Tubule

A

convoluted tubule

function: where sperm develop

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39
Q

epididymus

A

in testis
Series of ducts, posterior portion of testis
function: site of sperm maturation(become motile)

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40
Q

Ductus (vans) Deferens

A

in testis
– Connection of spermatic chord to epididymis
– Ascends through inguinal canal into abdominal cavity
– Surrounded by blood vessels, nerves and smooth muscle

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41
Q

ejaculation

A

caused by smooth muscle contraction squeezing out semen from vas deferens and spermatic chord

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42
Q

ejaculatory duct

A
  • where the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle meet (before the urethra)
  • wall is lined with smooth muscle foe ejaculation
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43
Q

urethra

A

duct for semen and urine

44
Q

seminal vesicle

A

Posterior to bladder
– 70% of semen comes from here
– Secretes alkaline fluid with fructose

45
Q

prostate gland

A

Inferior to bladder, surrounds urethra

46
Q

bulbourethral glands

A

pea-sized, inferior to prostate
– Secrete thick, clear mucous
function: lubricate and neutralize pH of urethra prior to ejaculation

47
Q

Penis

A

Three regions:
– Root: portion of shaft posterior to abdominal wall (inside)
– Body (shaft): external shaft
– Glans: enlarged tip, many sensory receptors
• Covered by prepuce (foreskin)

48
Q

erection

A

parasympathetic nerves lead to nitric oxide release -> dilate arteries -> fill sinuses which smashes drainage veins -> engorgement of penis

49
Q

erectile dysfunction

A

Cause: Damage to the artery walls with aging is the most typical
cause
• Treatment: cialis or viagra -> increase effect of nitric oxide

50
Q

LH hormone

A

– Stimulate leydig cells to release testosterone

51
Q

FSH hormone

A

Stimulate sertoli cells to release chemical to aid in sperm development and production
• Stimulate sertoli cells to release inhibin

52
Q

testosterone

A

– Aids in sperm development
– Secondary male sex characteristics:
• Facial and pubic hair, deep voice, increase muscle mass

53
Q

Inhibin

A

– Negative feedback to inhibit GnRH and FSH – Controls the rate of sperm production

54
Q

anabolic steroids

A

• Testosterone precursors or testosterone itself
• Hypothalamus senses high testosterone -> stops GnRH -> no LH or FSH release
purpose: build muscle mass

55
Q

anabolic steroid side effect

A

• Infertility:
– Why: no LH or FSH sertoli cells stop working and even die can lose blood barrier
• Cardiovascular disease:
– High cholesterol
– Unhealthy thickening of the heart muscle
• Liver Damage: liver metabolizes steroids
• Emotional changes: rage, instability,
depression
• Gynecomastia:
– Extra testosterone is converted into estrogen breast development
• Ulcerated acne:
– Sebaceous glands are stimulated by testosterone

56
Q

ovaries

A

Gonads of the female: contain gametes

• Protected by: tunica albuginea

57
Q

nurse cells

A

granulosa cells
• Organized into follicles (cavity encompassing egg)
• Surround eggs to help development (similar to sertoli)
– Many for 1 egg
– 1 sertoli for many sperm • Produce estrogen

58
Q

thecal cells

A

Located between follicles

Function: Secrete androstenedion that turns into estrogen

59
Q

Uterine Tubes (oviducts; Fallopian Tubes)

A

– Inner layer: Ciliated columnar epithelium
• Function: To move eggs
– Smooth muscle middle layer
• Function: to move eggs and catch eggs
– Fertilization usually occurs in uterine
tubes

60
Q

Uterus

A

Inner layer: Endometrium
– Mucous membrane, well vascularized, many glands
– Cycles of development and necrosis of surface epithelial tissue (driven by hormones)
– Function: site of implantation and fetal development
Middle layer: Myometrium
– Majority of the thickness of uterus
– Smooth muscle, fibers oriented in all different directions
• Function: push that baby out!
Outerlayer:Perimetrium
– Serous membrane on outer layer

61
Q

vagina

A 
mostly smooth muscle and membrane
• Lined by mucous membrane (stratified squamous ET)
function: 
-sexual intercourse
-passageway for menstraul flow
-birth canal
62
Q

hymen

A

outermost portion of mucous membrane: mostly blocks opening of vagina in most virgins (may bleed upon breaking)

63
Q

clitoris

A 
erectile tissue (vascular anatomy similar to penis)
– Controlled by: parasympathetic nervous system
64
Q

labia majora and minora

A

Skin folds

– Function: provide protection for vagina and urethra

65
Q

vestibular glands

A

behind labia

– Function: secrete lubricating fluid during and before intercourse

66
Q

FSH

A

– Stimulates follicle growth

– Stimulates granulosa cells to release estrogen – Stimulates granulosa cells to release inhibin

67
Q

LH

A

– Stimulates thecal (interstitial) cells to produce androstenedione (converted into estrogen) causes ovulation

68
Q

estrogen

A

– Released from follicle in response to FSH

– Stimulates growth of endometrium in uterus

69
Q

progesterone

A

– Released from corpus luteum

– Maintains endometrium

70
Q

Inhibin

A

– Inhibits release of FSH and GnRH

71
Q

menstrual phase

A 
days: 1-5
GnRH: low, starting to rise
• LH: low, starting to rise
• FSH: low, starting to rise
• Progesterone: decreasing
• Estrogen: decreasing
• Follicle: corpus luteum dies 
• Uterus: endometrium dies
72
Q

proliferative phase

A
  • Days: 5-13
  • GnRH: higher
  • LH: higher
  • FSH: higher
  • Progesterone: very low
  • Estrogen: rising, still low
  • Follicle: growth
  • Uterus: growth
73
Q

ovulatory phase

A
  • Days: 14
  • GnRH: surge
  • LH: surge
  • FSH: surge
  • Progesterone: rises after ovulation
  • Estrogen: very high, drop immed
  • Follicle: large, releases estrogen
  • Uterus: Still growing
74
Q

secretory/luteal phase

A
  • Days: 15-28
  • GnRH: low
  • LH: low
  • FSH: low
  • Progesterone: high, from corpus luteum, inhibit 3 above
  • Estrogen: from corpus luteum, stays high
  • Follicle: endocrine organ, corpus luteum
  • Uterus :secretes mucous, prepares for implantation
75
Q

pericardium

A 
2 layers:
• Fibrous: very tough, prevents over expanding under high pressure (outermost layer)
• Anchors heart to surrounding
structures
• Serous: 2 layered
membrane with fluid in middle
76
Q

epicardium

A

The heart side of the pericardium

77
Q

pericardial cavity

A

Fluid filled space between the two layers of the serous membrane

78
Q

myocardium

A

The cardiac muscle, contractile

79
Q

endocardium

A

– Between myocardium and the heart
chamber
– Thin layer, epithelial tissue

80
Q

atria

A

Receiving chambers pump blood to the ventricles

81
Q

interatrial septum

A

separates left and right

82
Q

foramen ovale

A

hole in interatrial septum of fetus

83
Q

auricles

A

external portion, extend atria

84
Q

ventricles

A

– Pumping chambers

– Much thicker walls, much stronger

85
Q

What is the purpose of the papillary muscles in the heart?

A

To prevent the AV valves from turning inside out when the ventricles contract

86
Q

Heart Valves

• Between atria and ventricles

A

Right side: tricuspid valve
Left side: bicuspid valve (mitral)
– Both have chordae tendinae attached to valve flaps and to papillary muscles

87
Q

Heart Valves

• Between ventricles and associated arteries

A

Semilunar valves: Each have 3 (crescent moon shaped) cup like structures
– Right side: pulmonary semilunar valve
– Left side: aortic semilunar valve

88
Q

What causes the AV valves to close?

A

pressure from blood inside ventricle

89
Q

What causes the AV valves to open?

A

when pressure in ventricle dies down, pressure from blood coming in is greater(relaxation of ventricle)

90
Q

What causes the semilunar valves to close?

A

left ventricle contracts, doesn’t open til ventricle has higher pressure than valve

91
Q

angina

A

Temporary blockage or partial blockage of a portion of an artery -> chest pain
Causes:
-stress induced artery spasms
-atherosclerosis(coronary artery disease)
Treatments: nitroglycerin

92
Q

myocardial infarction

A
  • Complete blockage of artery tissue death
  • Heart muscle does not heal
  • Causes: Atherosclerosis -> blockage or thrombus (clot from elsewhere)
  • Treatment: bypass surgery, stent
93
Q

cardiac muscle fiber histology

-striated

A

sarcomeres identical to skeletal muscle

94
Q

cardiac muscle fiber histology

-branched fibers

A

all connected

95
Q

cardiac muscle fiber histology

-single nucleus

A

smaller cells

96
Q

Many mitochondria (30% of volume, vs 2% in skeletal muscle)

A

high fatigue resistance

97
Q

intercalated disks

A

between cells
– Desmosomes: anchoring cells together
– Gap junctions: allows ions to pass from cell to cell, action potentials pass from cell to cell

98
Q

skeletal muscle

What causes an action potential?

A

permeability changes in membrane

99
Q

what dictates an action potential in skeletal muscle?

A

voltage gated ion channels

100
Q

cardiac action potential

A

• Starts in pacemaker cells (SA and AV nodes)
• Passes through gap junctions from cell to cell
• Resting membrane potential: – Balance: Negative inside
– Inside: Potassium
– Outside: Sodium
• Depolarization: by Na+ rushing in
• Plateau phase: Slow Ca2+ channels open Ca2+ rushes in
• Repolarization: Slow K+ channels open K+ goes out

101
Q

conduction pathway

sinoatrial(SA) node

A

– Location: Upper right atrium, by vena cava
– Function: Pacemaker of heart
– Causes: atrial contraction

102
Q

conduction pathway

atrioventricular(AV) node

A

– Location: Next to tricuspid valve
– Function: receives stim from atria sends signal to ventricles
– Causes: slight pause (.1 sec) filling time

103
Q

conduction pathway

atrioventricular(AV) bundle

A

– Location: superior interventricular septum

– Function: only connection between ventricles, carries signal to both

104
Q

conduction pathway

bundle branches

A

– Location: Interventricular septum, one on each side

105
Q

conduction pathway

purkinje fibers

A

– Location: All throughout ventricles and papillary muscles
– Function: contract ventricles and papillary muscles
– Very fast depolarization rate (100 times faster than the rest)

106
Q

Heart sounds

A
  • First Sound: “lub”, due to AV valves snapping shut.

* Second Sound: “dub”, due to SL valves closing

BIO140 (4 decks)

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