Section 2 Flashcards
What distinguishes an epidemic from an endemic disease?
Epidemics implies that a disease has increased in frequency in a defined geographic area far above its usual rate. Endemic implies that a disease is present in a community at all times but at a relatively low frequency.
Which organization is responsible for declaring a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC)?
WHO
How can public health officials contribute to the prevention of communicable diseases?
In managing noncommunicable disease by implementing targeted interventions such as improved living conditions, early detection, and community education
What is a holistic approach to preventing and managing noncommunicable diseases?
Strategies for preventing and managing noncommunicable diseases involve early detection, prompt treatment, and community education, emphasizing the importance of holistic PH approach
5 determinants of health categories
Genetics, behavior, environmental, and physical influences, medical care, and social factors
Social determinants of health
Encompasses economic and social conditions that influence the health of people and communities. Individual: Education occupation, or income
COVID-19 Pandemic Commission on Global Health Risk Framework impact
-Increased relevance
-Expanded scope: comprehensive approach to global health risks
-Accelerated action: global cooperation, preparedness, and response mechanisms
-Enhanced collaboration: gov, internation orgs, academia, and private sector
-Policy influence: national and internation strategies for pandemic preparedness and response
-Heighten public awareness
Pandemic
Epidemics occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries and affecting a large number of people.
Epidemic
Disease has increased in frequency in a defined geographic area far above its usual rate
Koch’s Postulates
Evidence of an epidemiological association between the presence of the organism and the presence of a disease in human beings
Isolation of the organism from most of those with the disease
Transmissions to definitively establish that an organism is a contributory cause of disease
Chronic carriers
Ability to chronically transmit the disease. E.g HIV, hep B, and Hep C
contributory causes:
are factors that directly or indirectly contribute to the occurrence or development of a particular heath condition.
genetics:
Study of genes and heredity
behavior
the actions and choices individuals make that can have either positive or negative impacts on their well-being. Ex daily habits, lifestyle choices
environmental and physical influences
conditions in the external surroundings that can impact individual’s well-being.
Natural environment
Built environment (live, work, and play)
natural environment
elements like air, water quality, availability of green spaces, and exposure to natural disasters. Ex high air pollution>resp problems, rec/park>physical and mental health
built environment
human-made structures and infrastructure such as housing, transportation systems, and workplace settings. Ex: walkable neighborhoods>physical activity
medical care
access, quality, and use of healthcare services that individuals receive to prevent, diagnose, treat, and manage their health conditions.
Geographic location
SES
Health insurance coverage
Quality of care
social factors
social and economic conditions in which people live, work, and interact.
Cultural norms- may influence dietary needs
Discrimination – contribute to stress and negatively impact mental health
Community cohesion- may promote a sense of safety and support
public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC):
formal declaration by the World Health Org (WHO) that an event is underway that is considered high risk for spreading internationally and therefore requires an organized response.
endemic disease
constant presence or usual prevalence of a disease in specific geographic area or population group. Low, continual, and predictable rates.
disease vectors
a living thing that acquires and transmits disease, often through bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
Ex: using insecticides or bed nets to reduce mosquito populations is a crucial tool in the challenge to reduce human-vector contact.
microorganisms
tiny living organisms, which can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites; they are often the cause of infectious disease
Infectious diseases
Both communicable disease and disease caused by organisms that are not communicable.
Difference: The ability to be transmitted from person to person or from animals or the physical environment to humans.
R naughts (Ro)
basic reproduction numbers of infectious agents; it represents the average number of people to whom a single infected person will transmit the disease in a susceptible population
Interventions: Quarantine, effective treatments to reduce communicability, barriers- masks, condoms, vaccinations
isolation
individual who are already sick, separating them from those who are healthy
quarantine
separation of individuals who may have been exposed to a contagious disease but are not yet showing s/s.
immunization
introduction of a vaccine to stimulate the immune system to recognize and fight pathogens, providing protection against future infections.
vaccination
same as immunization; the term are synonyms
Screening
proactive approach to identify and isolate individuals who may be carrying a communicable disease
Early detection allows for timely intervention, preventing further transmission
4 criteria for ideal screening process
- The disease produces substantial death and/or disability
- Early detection is possible and improves outcomes
- There is a feasible testing strategy for screening
- Screening is acceptable in terms of harms, costs, and patient acceptance
Lead-time bias
Early detection without improved outcome
treatment
alleviates s/s in infected individual and also reduces the duration of the infectiousness, limiting the potential for further spread.
noncommunicable disease
chronic disease that cannot be transmissible from person to person; they have a long duration and generally slow progression, such as heart disease, CA, DM, and chronic resp disease
environmental health
aspects of PH concerned with the factors, circumstances, and conditions in the environment or surroundings of humans that can influence health and well-being
Physical Environment -3 categories
Unaltered “natural”
Altered-reflecting the impact of chemicals, radiation, and biological products that we introduce to the environment,
Built -impact of human construction
Consumption of resources- land, food, water, air, fossil fuels, and minerals
Waste products-air and water pollutants, toxic materials, and greenhouse gases
Epidemiological transition
concept indicating the change that has been historically observed as part of social and economic development, from mortality and morbidity dominated by infections, to morbidity and mortality dominated by what has been called noncommunicable disease or degenerative and human-made diseases (synonym: public health transition).
What does health equity aim to achieve?
Equitable distribution of health outcomes
Which model focuses on an individual’s readiness to change behavior?
Stages of Change Model
What is a primary consideration in community engagement ethics?
addressing root cause
empower communities
built trust
cocreate sustainable solution that promote health equity
What does the health belief model primarily address?
people will act to prevent, control, or treat an illness if they believe they are susceptible to the condition, perceive the severity of the illness as significant, believe that taking a specific action will reduce their susceptibility or severity, and perceive the benefits of the action to outweigh the costs or barriers.
Perceived susceptibility- own opinion of getting a condition
Perceived severity -how serious condition is and it consequences
Perceived benefits-advised action to reduce risk and/or severity of condition
Perceived barriers-tangible and psychological costs of advised action
Modifying variables -own characteristics that influence personal perceptions
Cues to action-Strategies/events that encourage one’s readiness to act
Self-efficacy- Belief in one’s ability to take action
Social Justice
A society that provides fair treatment and a fair share of the rewards of society to individuals
Gini index (Gini coefficient)
Measure of income distribution with an index ranging from 0 to 1. Higher values indicate greater inequality. Index is multiplied by 100. Countries with the widest gap between the poorest of the poor experience higher rate of infant mortality and lower life expectancy compared to other countries with a narrow gap between rich and poor.
Black men in the US have the shortest life expectancy, while white men have the longest life expectancy
10 key categories of Social Determinants of Health
1.Social Status
2.Social Support or Alienation
3.Food
4.Housing
5.Education
6.Work
7.Stress
8.Transportation
9.Place- pollution, physically active
10.Access to Health Services
Bioethics
health law, policy, and ethics encourage or discourage behaviors
social determinants of health:
conditions in which people are born, grow up, live, learn, work, play, worship, and age, as well as the systems put in place to deal with illnesses that affect health and quality of life.
No universally agreed upon set of social determinants
Berkman and Kawachi’s theory on health outcomes emphasizes
quality of social connections
ecological model:
a framework that considers the multiple levels of influence on individual behavior, from personal factors to broader social and environmental contexts
health belief model
A model of behavioral change when personal beliefs influence health behavior and people will be more likely to take action if they believe they are susceptible to the condition; the condition has serious consequences; taking action would benefit them, with the benefits outweighing the harms; people are exposed to factors that prompt action; and people believe in their ability to successfully perform the action
stages of change model
People go through a set of incremental stages when changing behavior rather than making significant changes all at once. Precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance phase
Downstream factors
directly involve an individual and can potentially be altered by individual interventions. Ex: addiction to nicotine
Mainstream factors
that result from the relationship of an individual with a larger group or population. Ex: peer pressure to smoke or the level of taxation on cigarettes
Upstream factors
grounded in social structures and policies. Ex: government-sponsored programs that encourage tobacco production.
social cognitive theory(social learning):
focuses on the interaction between individuals and their social systems.
Reciprocal Determinism
interplay among personal, environment, and behavior
Knowledge, skills, and belief
Social and physical environment- peer influence, family support, neighborhood
Interaction among all these factors
theory of reasoned action/planned behavior
theory of behavior change that posits that behavioral intention is influenced by individuals’ attitudes toward performing a behavior, their beliefs about whether people important to them approve or disapprove of the behavior, and their beliefs about their control over performing the behavior.
modeling
the process of demonstrating actions so another person can imitate them
self-efficacy
person’s belief in their ability to do or accomplish something
Diffusion of Innovation
community-level theory that new idea, product, or social practice is disseminated and adopted in a population
Social marketing
traditional with 4 Ps publics-target audience, partnerships, policies, and purse strings-funding
community engagement
the process of working collaboratively with community groups to address issues affecting their well-being
evidence-based public health(PERIE process)
a decision-making process that involves integrating the best available scientific evidence with expertise of PH practitioners and the values of the community to make decisions about PH policies and programs
Problem: what is the health problem
Etiology: what is/are the contributory cause
Recommendation: Reduce the health impact
Implementation
Evaluation: impact of intervention
causation: contributory cause
in PH, it refers to a cause-and-effect relationship where a specific factor is considered responsible for a particular health outcome
case-control studies: cause and effect
cohort studies: cause precedes the effect
randomized controlled trials: altering the cause alters the effect
correlation:
a statistical measure that describes the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together, unlike causation, correlation does not imply that one variable causes the other.
CDC Score
evidence-based recommendations, a measurement of the quality of the evidence and a measurement of the magnitude of the impact of the intervention.
Grades A-must,B-should,C-may,D-don’t,I- indeterminate/insufficient
health policy
decisions, plans, and actions undertaken to achieve specific healthcare goals within a society; these policies encompass a broad range of issues, including PH, health insurance, medical services, and more
health disparities
type of difference in health that closely linked with social or economic disadvantage
Risk factor
a contributory cause and implies that at least an association at the individual level has been established
Risk indicators/Marker:
factors occur more frequently among groups with the disease than among groups without the disease
Strength-relationship
how closely related the risk factor is to the disease
Relative Risk
Probability of developing the disease if the risk factor is present compared to the probability of developing the disease if the risk factor is not present.
Intrapersonal
Focusing on characteristics of the individual, including knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, motivation, self-concept, past experience, and skills
Interpersonal
Relationships between people, acknowledging that others influence behavior by sharing their thoughts, advice, feelings, emotional support, and other assistance.
Mental Health
is a state of successful performance of mental fx, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationship with other people, the ability to adapt to change and to cope with challenges.
What are the 3 components of the Epidemiologic triangle ?
-Agent: cause of the disease
-Host: organism harboring the disease
-Environment: where the agent and host interact
Which are common risk factors for noncomm diseases?
Poor nutrition
physical inactivity
tobacco use
Excessive alcohol
What is the main objective of disaster epidemiology?
-To assess the short-and long-term adverse health effects of disasters and predict future disasters’ consequences
-PH understand the needs, plan the response, and gather resources
-situational awareness
What is the role of the PHEP Cooperative agreement in disaster preparedness in the US?
-Provides guidance, technical assistance, and resources to assist health departments with strategic planning to strengthen their PH preparedness capabilities
-The PHEP cooperative agreement provides a critical source of funding for state, local, and territorial PH departments
What is one of the objectives of Healthy People 2030 related to emergency preparedness?
- It focuses on ensuring individuals, communities, and organizations are prepared for disasters, disease outbreaks, and medical emergencies.
- increasing the proportion of people who donate blood
-increasing the proportion of parents and guardians who know the emergency or evacuation plan for their children’s schools
-increasing the proportion of adults who prepare for a disease outbreak after getting preparedness information
-increasing the proportion of adults who know how to evacuate in case of a hurricane, flood, or wildfire
-and increasing the proportion of adults who have an emergency plan for disasters.
Epidemiology
branch of medicine that investigates all the factors determining the presence or absent of disease or disorder
Surveillance
ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of ehalth-related data essential to the planning, implementing, and evaluating of PH practice
o help ID the cause of a disease outbreak
o monitor trends in a disease occurrence and distribution
o guide immediate action for PH emergencies
o document the impact of a intervention
o track progress to specific goals
Passive surveillance
involves the routine collection and analysis of data in areas such as reportable disease, various registries (birth, death, chronic diseases), and standard hospital data
Active surveillance
systematic and intentional collection of data through specific efforts and activities. (proactive)
Police Power
functions to protect the health, safety, and welfare of persons within their borders. To control the spread of disease within their borders, states have laws to enforce isolation and quarantine. These laws can vary from state to state and can be specific or broad.
Epidemiological Triangle
a model used in public health to explain the factors contributing to disease spread, it consists of three components: agent (the cause of the disease), host (the organism harboring the disease), and environment (the external factors that affect the agent and the host); this model helps in identifying strategies for disease prevention and control
Environment
all external factors that influence the interaction between the host and the agent. Climate, social and economic factors
Virulence
level of harm
Infectivity
ability to infect
Pathogenicity
ability to cause disease
antigenicity
ability to cause an immune response
holistic framework
for understanding disease spread and informing PH interventions
Social justice
a perspective that views equitable access to healthcare as a fundamental right
Market Justice
considers healthcare as a commodity subject to market forces
immunization
inducing immunity to an infectious disease, typically through vaccination
chronic
a health condition or disease that is persistent or long-lasting in its effect.
atherosclerosis
buildup of plaque in arteries, narrowing them and restricting blood flow
situational awareness
the constant process of seeing, understanding, and anticipating an evolving disaster to make informed decisions that save lives and protect communities,
Emergency preparedness
the process of ensuring that individuals, communities, and orgs are ready to effectively respond to and recover from unplanned events such as disasters, disease outbreaks, and medical emergencies.
Mortality surveillance
measures death in a population and is an important indicator of the gravity of a disaster
Morbidity surveillance
allows for detecting potential disease outbreaks and tracking disease and injury trends.
Isolation
the separation and restriction of movement of individuals with a confirmed contagious disease from healthy individuals to prevent the spread of that disease
