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Psychology Paper 3 > Schizophrenia Knowledge > Flashcards

Schizophrenia Knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

What is schizophrenia?

A

Schizophrenia is a mental illness that usually occurs in late adolescence or early adulthood, but it can occur at any time in life.

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2
Q

What are the characteristics of schizophrenia?

A

It is characterised by disruptions in thought processes, perceptions, emotional responsiveness, and social interactions, impacting behaviour.

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3
Q

How does the course of schizophrenia vary?

A

The course of schizophrenia varies among individuals; it is typically persistent and can be both severe and disabling.

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4
Q

Is schizophrenia culturally universal?

A

Yes, schizophrenia is a worldwide disease; however, symptoms and incidence vary from culture to culture.

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5
Q

What percentage of the population develops schizophrenia?

A

Approximately 1% of the population develops schizophrenia during their lifetime.

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6
Q

Is schizophrenia more common in men or women?

A

Schizophrenia is more common in men than women.

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7
Q

Where is schizophrenia more common, urban or rural areas?

A

Schizophrenia is more common in those who live in the city than those who live in the countryside.

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8
Q

In which socioeconomic class is schizophrenia more common?

A

Schizophrenia is more common in working class than middle class people.

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9
Q

What is the prevalence of schizophrenia among mental disorders?

A

Schizophrenia is the world’s most common mental disorder, accounting for up to 50% of all mental patients.

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10
Q

What is classification?

A

The action or process of classifying something; a category into which something is put.

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11
Q

In psychology, what does classification involve?

A

Organising symptoms into categories based on which symptoms cluster together in sufferers.

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12
Q

What is a symptom?

A

A physical or mental feature regarded as indicating a condition or disease, particularly one apparent to the patient.

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13
Q

What are positive symptoms?

A

Symptoms that add to ‘normal’ behaviour, where sufferers experience something more than those who do not suffer from the disorder.

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14
Q

Name the two positive symptoms stated in the specification.

A
  • Hallucinations
  • Delusions
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15
Q

What are hallucinations?

A

Sensory experiences of stimuli that have no basis in reality or distorted perceptions of present stimuli.

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16
Q

What are visual hallucinations?

A

Experiences involving seeing things that are not there.

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17
Q

What are auditory hallucinations?

A

Experiences involving hearing things that are not there.

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18
Q

What are delusions?

A

Irrational beliefs that have no basis in reality, can also be known as paranoia.

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19
Q

What are delusions of grandeur?

A

Beliefs where the sufferer thinks they are someone important, like a historical, political, or religious figure.

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20
Q

What are delusions of persecution?

A

Beliefs where the sufferer thinks they are a victim of a conspiracy, such as being persecuted by the government or aliens.

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21
Q

How do positive symptoms generally manifest?

A

They occur in acute, short episodes, with more ‘normal’ periods in between.

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22
Q

How do positive symptoms respond to treatment compared to negative symptoms?

A

They respond better to drug treatment than negative symptoms.

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23
Q

Are positive symptoms more common in males or females?

A

They may be more common in females.

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24
Q

Why are positive symptoms more noticeable to friends and family?

A

They are more obvious to others compared to negative symptoms.

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25
Q

What are negative symptoms in the context of mental health disorders?

A

Negative symptoms are those which remove aspects of ‘normal’ behaviour, resulting in a loss of behaviour compared to those who do not suffer from the disorder.

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26
Q

What is avolition?

A

Avolition involves a loss of motivation to carry out tasks and results in lowered activity levels. It can sometimes be called apathy.

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27
Q

What are the three signs of avolition identified by Andreasen (1982)?

A
  • Poor hygiene and grooming
  • Lack of persistence in work or education
  • Lack of energy
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28
Q

What does speech poverty refer to?

A

Speech poverty involves reduced frequency and quality of speech, also known as alogia.

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29
Q

How might a sufferer of speech poverty respond during conversations?

A

They may be delayed in responding verbally and produce excessively brief replies to questions, with minimal elaboration.

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30
Q

When do negative symptoms typically occur in relation to positive symptoms?

A

Negative symptoms usually occur before positive symptoms.

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31
Q

How do negative symptoms affect treatment with drugs?

A

Negative symptoms do not respond well to drug treatment.

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32
Q

What impact do negative symptoms have on social functioning?

A

Negative symptoms impact functioning effectively in society, such as in relationships or at work.

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33
Q

What is the relationship between classification and diagnosis in mental health?

A

Classification and diagnosis of mental health disorders are interlinked, as classification is required to diagnose patients with certain disorders.

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34
Q

Define diagnosis in the context of mental health.

A

Diagnosis is defined as the identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of the symptoms.

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35
Q

What is required for clinicians to diagnose a specific mental health disorder?

A

Clinicians need to distinguish one disorder from another by identifying clusters of symptoms that occur together.

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36
Q

How many symptoms must be apparent for a diagnosis of schizophrenia?

A

Two or more symptoms must be apparent for more than one month.

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37
Q

What is a characteristic of the symptoms linked to schizophrenia?

A

The symptoms can often be seen as ‘random’ and unrelated.

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38
Q

What is the typical gender prevalence for negative symptoms?

A

Negative symptoms may be more common in males.

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39
Q

True or False: Negative symptoms are often obvious to friends and family.

A

False

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40
Q

What are the two classification systems for schizophrenia?

A

• International Classification of Disease Edition 10 (ICD-10)
• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Edition 5 (DSM-5)

These systems differ in their categorization of schizophrenia.

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41
Q

What is required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia according to ICD-10?

A

Two or more negative symptoms are sufficient

Examples of negative symptoms include speech poverty and avolition.

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42
Q

What subtypes of schizophrenia are recognized by ICD-10?

A

• Paranoid
• Hebephrenic
• Catatonic

ICD-10 acknowledges these three subtypes.

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43
Q

What is required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia according to DSM-5?

A

One positive symptom must be present

Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and speech disorganization.

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44
Q

Does DSM-5 recognize subtypes of schizophrenia?

A

No, DSM-5 does not recognize subtypes

This is a key difference from ICD-10.

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45
Q

Fill in the blank: According to ICD-10, _______ symptoms are not required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia.

A

positive

This contrasts with DSM-5, which requires at least one positive symptom.

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46
Q

What does reliability concern in relation to schizophrenia?

A

The consistency of the application of the chosen classification system

This impacts diagnosis.

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47
Q

What does diagnostic reliability mean?

A

A diagnosis of schizophrenia must be repeatable

This includes inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability.

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48
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

Different clinicians must make the same, independent diagnoses of the same patient

This ensures consistency among different professionals.

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49
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

The same clinicians must make the same diagnoses on separate occasions from the same information

This measures consistency over time.

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50
Q

What does validity concern in the context of schizophrenia?

A

The extent to which individuals are measuring what they are intending to measure.

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51
Q

What is the importance of validity in diagnosing schizophrenia?

A

It concerns how accurate a diagnosis is.

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52
Q

What is required for valid diagnoses of schizophrenia?

A

Schizophrenia should be a disorder separate from all other disorders, as characterized by specific symptoms.

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53
Q

What is the first step towards establishing validity in diagnosis?

A

Reliability.

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54
Q

True or False: Reliability guarantees validity in diagnoses.

A

False.

55
Q

What does predictive validity refer to?

A

If diagnosis leads to successful treatment, then diagnosis is seen as valid.

56
Q

What is descriptive validity?

A

To be valid, patients with schizophrenia should differ in symptoms from patients with other disorders.

57
Q

What does aetiological validity imply?

A

To be valid, all people with schizophrenia should have the same cause for the disorder.

58
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

To be valid, different classification systems should arrive at the same diagnosis for the same patient.

59
Q

What is co-morbidity?

A

The occurrence of two or more medical conditions together

Example: schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

60
Q

What does it imply if conditions frequently occur together?

A

It questions the validity of their diagnosis and classification

They might be one single condition rather than two separate ones.

61
Q

What is symptom overlap?

A

Symptom overlap occurs when two or more conditions share symptoms, complicating diagnosis.

62
Q

Which two disorders have significant symptom overlap?

A

Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

63
Q

What symptoms do schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share?

A
  • Delusions
  • Avolition
64
Q

What does symptom overlap suggest about schizophrenia and bipolar disorder?

A

They may not be two different conditions but variations of a single condition.

65
Q

How does symptom overlap affect the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

A

It makes schizophrenia hard to distinguish from bipolar disorder.

66
Q

Name two other conditions that exhibit symptom overlap with schizophrenia.

A
  • Autism
  • Cocaine intoxication
67
Q

What is gender bias in the context of psychiatric diagnosis?

A

The tendency for diagnostic criteria to be applied differently to males and females

This can impact the diagnosis given based on the patient’s gender.

68
Q

How can the psychiatrist’s gender affect diagnosis?

A

It may impact their ability to diagnose

This raises questions about the reliability and validity of diagnoses.

69
Q

What is the accepted belief regarding the gender prevalence rate of schizophrenia?

A

Males and females are equally vulnerable to the disorder

However, recent studies suggest a higher prevalence in males.

70
Q

What discrepancy exists in the diagnosis of schizophrenia regarding males and females?

A

Clinicians often misapply diagnostic criteria to women

Most clinicians are men, which may influence their diagnostic decisions.

71
Q

By how much may there be more males diagnosed with schizophrenia according to recent studies?

A

Up to 50% more males

This contrasts with the previously held belief of equal vulnerability.

72
Q

What negative symptoms are more commonly associated with males suffering from schizophrenia?

A

Higher levels of substance abuse and more negative symptoms

Clinicians often fail to consider these factors in diagnoses.

73
Q

What are the recovery and relapse rates for females compared to males in schizophrenia?

A

Females have better recovery rates and lower relapse rates

This is often overlooked by clinicians.

74
Q

What factor is often ignored by clinicians that affects vulnerability to schizophrenia?

A

Different predisposing factors between males and females

These factors vary at different points in life.

75
Q

At what ages does first onset of schizophrenia typically occur in males?

A

Between 18 and 25 years

This is earlier than for females.

76
Q

At what ages does first onset of schizophrenia typically occur in females?

A

Between 25 and 35 years

This is generally 4 to 10 years later than in males.

77
Q

What are the peaks for male schizophrenia onset?

A

Ages 21 and 39

These peaks indicate higher susceptibility at these ages.

78
Q

What are the peaks for female schizophrenia onset?

A

Ages 22, 37, and 62

There are three distinct peaks compared to males.

79
Q

What is culture bias?

A

The tendency to over diagnose members of other cultures as suffering from schizophrenia

Culture bias questions the reliability and validity of schizophrenia diagnoses.

80
Q

How does culture bias affect the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

A

It suggests that patients can display the same symptoms but receive different diagnoses based on their ethnic background

A patient’s ethnicity influences the likelihood of being diagnosed with schizophrenia.

81
Q

In Britain, which ethnic group is more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia?

A

Afro-Caribbean individuals

They are also more likely to be placed in secure units compared to white people.

82
Q

Is the higher diagnosis rate of schizophrenia among Afro-Caribbean individuals due to genetic vulnerability?

A

No

Rates of schizophrenia are not higher in Africa and the West Indies.

83
Q

What accusation is made regarding British psychiatrists and culture bias?

A

Most British psychiatrists are white and may perceive black people with schizophrenia as more ‘dangerous’ than white people

This perception could influence diagnosis rates.

84
Q

What factors may contribute to higher levels of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities?

A

Heightened stress levels from poverty and racism

These stressors may exacerbate mental health issues within these cultural groups.

85
Q

What do genetic explanations for schizophrenia suggest?

A

Those who suffer from the disorder inherit a gene, or combination of genes, that predispose them to the mental illness.

86
Q

What are genes made of?

A

DNA strands.

87
Q

What do DNA instructions affect?

A
  • General physical features (e.g., eye colour)
  • Specific physical features (e.g., neurotransmitter levels, size of brain structures)
  • Psychological features (e.g., intelligence, mental disorders)
88
Q

How are genes transmitted?

A

From parents to offspring, i.e., inherited.

89
Q

What types of studies are used to assess concordance rates for schizophrenia?

A
  • Family studies
  • Twin studies
  • Adoption studies
90
Q

What are concordance rates?

A

The likelihood that if one family member has schizophrenia, another member will.

91
Q

What do family studies investigate regarding schizophrenia?

A

The extent to which greater genetic similarity between family members is associated with the likelihood of both developing schizophrenia.

92
Q

What did Gottesman (1991) find regarding MZ and DZ twins?

A
  • MZ twins have a 48% risk of getting schizophrenia
  • DZ twins have a 17% risk rate.
93
Q

What is the risk of developing schizophrenia for someone with an aunt who has it?

A

2%, increasing to 9% if the individual is a sibling.

94
Q

True or False: The higher the degree of genetic relatedness, the lower the risk of getting schizophrenia.

A

False.

95
Q

Is there a single ‘schizophrenic’ gene?

A

No, schizophrenia is believed to be polygentic, involving several individual genes.

96
Q

What type of genes are most likely associated with schizophrenia?

A

Genes coding for neurotransmitters, including dopamine.

97
Q

What was the focus of the study conducted by Ripke et al. (2014)?

A

A large-scale study comparing the genetic make-up of 37,000 people diagnosed with schizophrenia to 113,000 controls.

98
Q

How many different genetic variations were found to be associated with increased risk of schizophrenia in the Ripke et al. study?

A

108 different genetic variations.

99
Q

What does it mean for schizophrenia to be aetiologically heterogenous?

A

Different combinations of genes can lead to the condition.

100
Q

Does having candidate genes for schizophrenia guarantee the development of the disorder?

A

No, having these genes does not mean someone will definitely develop schizophrenia.

101
Q

What is one explanation for genetic origins of schizophrenia without family history?

A

Mutation in parental DNA.

102
Q

What factors can cause mutation in parental DNA?

A

Radiation, poison, and viral infection.

103
Q

How does paternal age relate to the risk of schizophrenia?

A

There is a positive correlation between paternal age and risk of sperm mutation, which increases the risk of schizophrenia.

104
Q

What is the risk of schizophrenia for fathers under 25?

A

Around 0.7%.

105
Q

What is the risk of schizophrenia for fathers over 50?

A

Over 2%.

106
Q

Fill in the blank: Schizophrenia is believed to be _______.

A

polygentic.

107
Q

True or False: All individuals with schizophrenia have a family history of the disorder.

A

False.

108
Q

What are neural explanations?

A

Explanations of behaviour in terms of (dys)functions of the brain and nervous system

109
Q

What is the best-known neural correlate of schizophrenia?

A

Dopamine

110
Q

What role does dopamine play in schizophrenia?

A

It is important in the functioning of several brain systems related to the symptoms of schizophrenia

111
Q

What is the Dopamine Hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis that patients with schizophrenia have an oversensitivity to the actions of dopamine

112
Q

What symptoms are associated with low dopamine levels?

A

Symptoms similar to those in people with Parkinson’s disease

113
Q

What could cause oversensitivity to dopamine in schizophrenia?

A

High numbers of dopamine receptors, hypersensitive dopamine receptors, excess amounts of dopamine

114
Q

What is hyperdopaminergia?

A

Too much dopamine in the subcortex

115
Q

Which brain area is associated with speech production and may explain auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia?

A

Broca’s area

116
Q

What do updated versions of the dopamine hypothesis suggest about dopamine levels in the cortex?

A

Patients with schizophrenia may experience hypodopaminergia (too little dopamine)

117
Q

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia?

A

Responsible for thinking and decision making; low levels of dopamine may lead to negative symptoms

118
Q

Fill in the blank: The original dopamine hypothesis was based on the discovery that antipsychotics reduce dopamine and cause symptoms similar to those in people with _______.

A

Parkinson’s disease

119
Q

True or False: The dopamine hypothesis states that individuals with schizophrenia have too little dopamine in the subcortex.

A

False

120
Q

What negative symptoms of schizophrenia may result from low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex?

A

Avolition

121
Q

What is the ventral striatum linked to?

A

Motivation and anticipation of reward

Abnormalities in the ventral striatum may be involved in the development of avolition.

122
Q

What correlation did Juckel et al. (2006) find regarding the ventral striatum?

A

A negative correlation between activity levels in the ventral striatum and the severity of overall negative symptoms

123
Q

What is the major area involved in the comprehension of language?

A

Superior temporal gyrus (STG)

The STG is also involved in auditory processing and social cognition.

124
Q

How is the left STG affected in patients with schizophrenia?

A

It has been reported to be smaller

125
Q

What correlation has been found regarding the volume of the STG in schizophrenia patients?

A

Negatively correlates with the severity of hallucinations and thought disorder

126
Q

What is the anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG) a component of?

A

Limbic system

127
Q

What functions does the ACG regulate?

A

Processing emotions, behavior regulation, autonomic motor function, performance monitoring by detecting errors

128
Q

What did Allen et al. (2007) find in their study of individuals experiencing auditory hallucinations?

A

Lower activation levels in the STG and ACG compared to controls

129
Q

In Allen et al. (2007) study, what task were participants performing?

A

Identifying pre-recorded speech as theirs or that of others

130
Q

What did Johnstone et al. (1976) find regarding brain structure in people with schizophrenia?

A

People with schizophrenia had enlarged ventricles

131
Q

What does the finding of enlarged ventricles in schizophrenia suggest?

A

Schizophrenia is related to a loss of brain tissue

132
Q

According to Weyandt (2006), which symptoms are associated with enlarged ventricles?

A

Negative symptoms only

133
Q

True or False: Enlarged ventricles can explain all symptoms and incidences of schizophrenia.

A

False

Psychology Paper 3 (8 decks)

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