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Psychology Paper 3 > Forensic Psychology knowledge > Flashcards

Forensic Psychology knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

What is offender profiling?

A

A behavioural and analytical tool to help investigators predict and profile characteristics of unknown criminals

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2
Q

What is the main aim of offender profiling?

A

To narrow the field of enquiry and the list of key suspects

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3
Q

On what basis can characteristics of an offender be inferred?

A

From the offence and details of the crime scene

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4
Q

What does compiling a profile usually involve?

A

Scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis of the evidence

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5
Q

What characteristics of the offender can be hypothesized?

A

Gender, age, employment, social background

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6
Q

Who stated that inferences about the offender can be made from the crime scene?

A

Jackson and Bekerian (1997)

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7
Q

What is meant by ‘modus operandi’?

A

A particular way or method of doing something

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8
Q

What does the profiling process assume about criminals’ behavior?

A

Criminals operate in a similar way reflecting their personality

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9
Q

What is the foundational belief of offender profiling?

A

There is consistency in crime

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10
Q

Why is consistency in a criminal’s personality important for profiling?

A

It implies that their modus operandi will remain similar

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11
Q

What are ‘signatures’ in the context of crime scenes?

A

Distinctive behaviours left at the scene

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12
Q

What is the top-down approach in offender profiling?

A

Starts from a general classification of the crime scene to make judgments about likely offenders

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13
Q

Fill in the blank: The top-down approach goes from _______ to data.

A

classification

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14
Q

What unit originated the approach of offender profiling?

A

FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit

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15
Q

What was the primary purpose of developing offender profiling?

A

To produce a profile of the most likely offender

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16
Q

What types of characteristics are considered in offender profiling?

A
  • Social (age, social class, profession)
  • Psychological (mental capacity)
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17
Q

How are offenders classified in the profiling approach?

A

‘Organised’ or ‘disorganised’

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18
Q

What is the ‘typology approach’ in offender profiling?

A

Classifying offenders into types based on pre-existing templates

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19
Q

What distinguishes an ‘organised’ offender?

A
  • Evidence of planning
  • Targets the victim
  • Socially and sexually competent
  • Higher-than-average intelligence
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20
Q

What are the characteristics of a ‘disorganised’ offender?

A
  • Little evidence of planning
  • Leaves clues
  • Socially and sexually incompetent
  • Lower-than-average intelligence
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21
Q

What is the top-down approach in offender profiling?

A

An intuitive application of a profiler’s prior knowledge

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22
Q

True or False: The top-down approach relies on explicit reasoning.

A

False

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23
Q

Fill in the blank: The approach to offender profiling is based on the idea that serious offenders have signature ways of working, known as _______.

A

modus operandi

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24
Q

What kind of data was used to develop offender profiling?

A

In-depth interviews with sexually motivated killers

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25
Q

What is the first stage in the construction of an FBI profile?

A

Data assimilation

The profiler reviews evidence including crime scene photographs, victim background, and crime details.

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26
Q

What types of information are reviewed during data assimilation?

A

Crime scene photographs, victim background, crime details

Includes employment, habits, relationships, weapon, and pathology reports.

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27
Q

What is the purpose of the seven decision-making tools in data assimilation?

A

To analyze various aspects of the crime and the offender

Helps in understanding the nature of the crime and the profile of the offender.

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28
Q

What are the seven decision-making tools used in data assimilation?

A
  • Murder type
  • Primary intent
  • Victim risk
  • Offender risk
  • Escalation
  • Time factors
  • Location factors

Each tool provides insight into the crime and helps in profiling the offender.

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29
Q

Define ‘murder type’ as a decision-making tool.

A

Is it an isolated incident or evidence of a serial killer, spree killer, or mass murder?

Helps determine the nature of the crime and the potential offender.

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30
Q

What does ‘primary intent’ refer to in the context of crime analysis?

A

Was it a deliberate, pre-meditated murder or a result of another crime?

Understanding intent can reveal the motivation behind the crime.

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31
Q

What does ‘victim risk’ indicate about the crime?

A

Killing low-risk targets provides insights into the offender’s focus

Certain individuals may only target high-risk victims.

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32
Q

How does ‘offender risk’ influence the analysis?

A

Indicates the level of risk involved in committing the crime

For example, daylight crimes may suggest different offender characteristics than those committed at night.

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33
Q

Explain the concept of ‘escalation’ in crime analysis.

A

Extent to which the crime has worsened compared to previous offences

Allows for predictions about future criminal behavior.

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34
Q

What do ‘time factors’ reveal during crime analysis?

A

Time of day indicates daily routines and duration of the crime

Provides context for understanding the crime’s execution.

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35
Q

What is the significance of ‘location factors’ in profiling?

A

Can provide information about the offender’s environment and transport

Helps in narrowing down potential suspects based on geographic patterns.

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36
Q

What is the second stage in constructing an FBI profile?

A

Crime scene classification

Classifies the crime as ‘organised’ or ‘disorganised’.

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37
Q

What does crime scene classification presume?

A

There is a correspondence between offences and offenders

Helps in understanding the behavioral patterns of the offender.

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38
Q

What is the third stage in the construction of an FBI profile?

A

Crime reconstruction

Involves creating hypotheses about the sequence of events and victim behavior.

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39
Q

What is the final stage in constructing an FBI profile?

A

Profile generation

Constructs a description of the likely offender for investigative strategies.

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40
Q

What elements are included in the profile generation stage?

A
  • Demographic background
  • Physical characteristics
  • Behavior
  • Habits
  • Beliefs

This information is crucial for planning investigative strategies.

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41
Q

True or False: The profile generated is used to anticipate how the offender will respond to investigative efforts.

A

True

Anticipating responses helps law enforcement in their strategies during the investigation.

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42
Q

What is the primary focus of bottom-up profiling?

A

Grounded in psychological theory

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43
Q

What are the two techniques within the bottom-up approach?

A
  • Investigative Psychology
  • Geographical Profiling
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44
Q

What does Investigative Psychology analyze?

A

Matches crime scene details with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns

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45
Q

What is the aim of establishing patterns of behaviour in Investigative Psychology?

A

To develop a statistical database for comparison

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46
Q

What can matching specific details about an offence against the database reveal?

A
  • Offender’s personality
  • Offender’s history
  • Offender’s family background
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47
Q

What might the analysis of time and place indicate about an offender?

A

Where the offender is living or working

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48
Q

What does forensic awareness in profiling suggest?

A

Certain behaviours might reveal awareness of police techniques and past experience with the Criminal Justice System

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49
Q

Define interpersonal coherence in the context of profiling.

A

The way an offender behaves at the scene, reflecting their behaviour in everyday situations

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50
Q

True or False: Profilers begin with fixed typologies.

A

False

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51
Q

What is the role of evidence collected from the crime scene in profiling?

A

To develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations, and social background of the offender

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52
Q

What principle is geographical profiling based on?

A

Spatial consistency

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53
Q

What can inferences about an offender’s operational base be made from?

A

Geographical location of previous crimes

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54
Q

How can geographical profiling be enhanced?

A

By using psychological theory, such as Investigative Psychology

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55
Q

What is the assumption regarding repeat offenders and their geographical areas?

A

They restrict their ‘work’ to areas they are familiar with

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56
Q

What does understanding the spatial pattern of an offender’s behavior provide investigators?

A

‘Centre of gravity’ likely to include the offender’s base

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57
Q

What can geographical profiling help investigators predict?

A

Where the offender is likely to strike next - ‘the jeopardy surface.’

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58
Q

What is Canter’s circle theory based on?

A

The pattern of offending forms a circle around the offender’s ‘home’ base

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59
Q

What are the two types of offenders described by psychologists based on offence distribution?

A
  • The marauder
  • The commuter
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60
Q

What does the marauder do?

A

Operates near their home base

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61
Q

What does the commuter do?

A

Travels a distance away from their usual residence

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62
Q

What insights can an offender’s spatial decision making provide to investigators?

A
  • Nature of the offence (planned or opportunistic)
  • Offender’s mode of transport
  • Employment status
  • Approximate age
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63
Q

What is the atavistic form in criminology?

A

A biological approach attributing criminal activity to a lack of evolutionary development

It suggests offenders are genetic throwbacks who differ biologically from non-criminals.

64
Q

Who proposed the atavistic form theory?

A

Cesare Lombroso

Lombroso was an Italian criminologist known for his work in the biological explanation of crime.

65
Q

How did Lombroso describe the nature of offenders?

A

As having a savage and untamed nature

This was believed to prevent them from adjusting to civilized society, leading to criminal behavior.

66
Q

According to Lombroso, why are offenders not to blame for their actions?

A

Offending behavior is innate and rooted in their genes

Lombroso’s perspective was revolutionary for its time, suggesting a biological basis for crime.

67
Q

What facial and cranial characteristics did Lombroso associate with offenders?

A

Narrow sloping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry

Other physical markers included dark skin and extra digits.

68
Q

List some other characteristics Lombroso associated with born offenders.

A
  • Insensitivity to pain
  • Use of slang
  • Tattoos
  • Unemployment

Lombroso suggested these traits indicated a predisposition to crime.

69
Q

What are the characteristics of murderers according to Lombroso?

A

Bloodshot eyes, curly hair, and long ears

Lombroso categorized criminals based on physical features.

70
Q

What features did Lombroso attribute to sexual deviants?

A

Glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips, and projecting ears

These characteristics were used to identify specific types of criminals.

71
Q

What characteristics did Lombroso associate with fraudsters?

A

Thin and ‘reedy’ lips

Lombroso’s categorization highlighted his belief in physical markers for criminal behavior.

72
Q

How is Lombroso’s theory viewed by today’s standards?

A

Speculative and naïve

Despite this, he is credited with making criminology more rigorous and scientific.

73
Q

What impact did Lombroso have on modern criminology?

A

Laid the foundations for modern offender profiling

His ideas contributed to the scientific study of criminal behavior.

74
Q

What do genetic explanations for crime suggest about offenders?

A

Offenders inherit a gene or combination of genes that predispose them to commit crime.

75
Q

What are genes composed of?

A

DNA strands.

76
Q

What do DNA strands produce instructions for?

A

General physical features and specific physical features.

77
Q

How do genes impact psychological features?

A

They influence intelligence and mental disorders.

78
Q

How are genes transmitted?

A

From parents to offspring.

79
Q

What type of twins did Lange (1930) study?

A

Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins.

80
Q

In Lange’s (1930) study, how many MZ twins had a co-twin who was also in prison?

A

10 MZ twins.

81
Q

In Lange’s (1930) study, how many DZ twins had a co-twin who was also in prison?

A

2 DZ twins.

82
Q

What conclusion did Lange (1930) reach regarding offending behavior?

A

Genetic factors must play a predominant part in offending behavior.

83
Q

What was the concordance rate for offender behavior in MZ males according to Christiansen (1977)?

A

35%.

84
Q

What was the concordance rate for offender behavior in DZ males according to Christiansen (1977)?

A

13%.

85
Q

What was the sample size of Christiansen’s (1977) study?

A

3586 twin pairs.

86
Q

What time period did Christiansen’s (1977) research cover?

A

Twins born between 1880 and 1910.

87
Q

What did Raine (1993) find regarding concordance rates for MZ twins?

A

52% concordance for MZ twins.

88
Q

What did Raine (1993) find regarding concordance rates for DZ twins?

A

21% concordance for DZ twins.

89
Q

True or False: Christiansen’s research supports the view that offending may have a genetic component.

A

True.

90
Q

What was the sample size of The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development?

A

411 males from 400 families

91
Q

What age range did The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development cover for interviews?

A

Age 8 to 32

92
Q

What percentage of families in The Cambridge Study had at least one convicted person?

A

64%

93
Q

What percentage of families accounted for 50% of all convictions in The Cambridge Study?

A

6%

94
Q

How strongly were the convictions of one family member related to the convictions of other family members in The Cambridge Study?

A

Strongly related

95
Q

What percentage of convicted fathers had a convicted child according to The Cambridge Study?

A

Approximately 75%

96
Q

Fill in the blank: About ______% of families with convicted daughters also had convicted sons.

A

75%

97
Q

According to The Cambridge Study, which sibling’s convictions were more strongly related to male convictions?

A

Older siblings

98
Q

What conclusion was drawn about offending behavior from The Cambridge Study?

A

Offending is strongly concentrated in families across generations

99
Q

What do adoption studies allow researchers to compare?

A

Behaviour of an individual with both their birth and adopted parents

100
Q

If an adopted child’s behavior is similar to their adopted parents, what is this attributed to?

A

Environmental influence

101
Q

If an adopted child’s behavior is more like their biological parents, what is this attributed to?

A

Possible genetic influence

102
Q

What was the risk of adopted children having a criminal record if their biological mother had a criminal record, according to Crowe (1972)?

A

50%

103
Q

What was the risk of adopted children having a criminal record if their biological mother did not have a criminal record, according to Crowe (1972)?

A

5%

104
Q

What did Joseph (2001) find regarding the genetic basis of criminality in adoption studies?

A

No support for a genetic basis

105
Q

What did Rhee and Waldman (2002) find regarding the influences on criminal behavior?

A

Shared and non-shared environmental influences accounted for 59%

106
Q

What does Rhee and Waldman (2002)’s meta-analysis suggest about the contributions to criminality?

A

Both genes and environmental influences contribute heavily

107
Q

What did Tiihonen et al. (2014) analyze in their study?

A

A genetic analysis of nearly 800 Finnish offenders

108
Q

How were the offenders categorized in Tiihonen et al.’s study?

A

As violent or non-violent

109
Q

Which two genes were found to have lower activity associated with violent crime?

A
  • MAOA
  • CDH13
110
Q

What does the MAOA gene code for?

A

The enzyme monoamine oxidase A

111
Q

What is the role of monoamine oxidase A in the brain?

A

Controlling the amount of dopamine and serotonin

112
Q

What behaviors has the MAOA gene been linked to?

A

Aggressive behaviour

113
Q

What conditions has the CDH13 gene been associated with?

A
  • Substance abuse
  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
114
Q

What percentage of severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes?

A

About 5-10%

115
Q

What was the focus of Brunner et al. (1993) research?

A

28 male members of a Dutch family with violent criminal behaviours

116
Q

What violent behaviours were noted in the Dutch family studied by Brunner et al.?

A
  • Rape
  • Attempted murder
117
Q

What was found in the DNA analysis of the Dutch family studied by Brunner et al.?

A

A shared gene leading to abnormally low levels of MAOA

118
Q

What does the Diathesis-Stress Model suggest about genetics and offending?

A

Genetics influence offending, moderated by environmental effects

119
Q

What can contribute to a tendency towards criminal behaviour according to the Diathesis-Stress Model?

A

A combination of genetic predisposition and a biological or psychological trigger

120
Q

What environmental factors can influence criminal behaviour?

A
  • Dysfunctional environment
  • Criminal role models
121
Q

What is the current thinking in epigenetics regarding genes and the environment?

A

Genes are ‘switched’ on or off by epigenomes influenced by environmental factors

122
Q

What specific childhood experience was highlighted as impactful in the context of epigenetics?

A

Maltreatment in children

123
Q

What was the sample size and demographic of Caspi et al.’s (2002) study?

A

About 1000 people from New Zealand followed since infancy

124
Q

What significant finding did Caspi et al. discover regarding men with low MAOA genes?

A

12% had experienced maltreatment but were responsible for 44% of violent convictions

125
Q

Fill in the blank: The MAOA gene is associated with _______ behaviour.

A

[aggressive]

126
Q

True or False: The CDH13 gene is linked to violent crime.

A

True

127
Q

What are neural explanations?

A

Explanations of behaviour and its disorders in terms of (dys)functions of the brain and nervous system

128
Q

Which brain structures are involved in neural explanations?

A

Hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex

129
Q

What neurotransmitters are mentioned in the context of neural explanations?

A

Serotonin and dopamine

130
Q

What condition is characterized by reduced emotional responses and lack of empathy?

A

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

131
Q

How does APD relate to offenders?

A

It is a condition that characterises many convicted offenders

132
Q

What role does noradrenaline play in behaviour?

A

Helps individuals respond to threatening situations

133
Q

What is the relationship between high levels of noradrenaline and behaviour?

A

Linked to violence and aggression

134
Q

How does serotonin affect mood and impulse control?

A

Regulates mood and impulse control; low levels increase impulsivity

135
Q

What did Higley et al. (1996) find about testosterone?

A

Positively correlated with aggressiveness but not impulsivity

136
Q

What correlation did Higley et al. (1996) find regarding serotonin?

A

Negatively correlated with impulsive behaviour and extreme aggression

137
Q

How is dopamine implicated in offending behaviour?

A

Linked to addiction and substance abuse

138
Q

What does dopaminergic activity in the limbic system lead to?

A

Experience of pleasure; greater activity leads to greater feelings of pleasure

139
Q

Fill in the blank: Low levels of serotonin can explain some offending behaviour as people may react more impulsively if they have impaired capacity to hold back.

A
140
Q

True or False: High levels of testosterone are negatively correlated with aggression.

A

False

141
Q

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)?

A

Regulates emotional behaviour

The PFC is crucial for emotional regulation and decision-making.

142
Q

What do brain-imaging studies suggest about individuals with antisocial personalities?

A

Reduced activity in the PFC

This reduced activity may explain difficulties in regulating emotions and behavior.

143
Q

What was the percentage reduction in the volume of grey matter in the PFC of people with Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) compared to controls?

A

11% reduction

This finding highlights structural differences in the brains of individuals with APD.

144
Q

What does reduced activity in the PFC imply about people with APD?

A

They do not feel guilt or appear to have a conscience

This lack of emotional regulation may lead to increased offending behavior.

145
Q

What did Fallon (2013) find regarding the brains of psychopaths?

A

Unusually low pattern of brain function in the frontal lobes

This area is associated with empathy and control.

146
Q

What was the aim of Raine et al.’s (1997) study?

A

To identify brain regions specific to offenders charged with murder or manslaughter

The study focused on those who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity.

147
Q

What method did Raine et al. (1997) use in their study?

A

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

This method highlighted areas of brain activity in the participants.

148
Q

What were the findings regarding brain activity in the offender group in Raine et al.’s (1997) study?

A

Reduced activity in the PFC and corpus callosum

Abnormalities were also noted in the limbic system, including the amygdala and thalamus.

149
Q

What conclusion was drawn about violent offenders in Raine et al.’s (1997) study?

A

They have abnormal brain function compared to ‘neurotypical’ controls

This suggests potential difficulties in decision-making and behavior control.

150
Q

Fill in the blank: The frontal lobes are linked to _______.

A

[planning behaviour]

This connection indicates that reduced PFC activity may hinder the ability to consider consequences.

151
Q

True or False: Offenders are able to make swift decisions due to normal brain function.

A

False

Reduced brain activity suggests they may be slower in decision-making.

152
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Neurons that activate when an individual observes another performing an action, allowing for empathy and understanding of others’ emotions.

Mirror neurons play a crucial role in social cognition and emotional empathy.

153
Q

What is the relationship between antisocial personality disorder (APD) and empathy?

A

Individuals with APD can experience empathy but in a more sporadic manner than neurotypical individuals.

This suggests that empathy in APD may not be as consistently activated.

154
Q

What did Keysers (2011) find regarding empathy in offenders?

A

Empathy reactions in offenders were activated only when they were asked to empathize with someone depicted in pain on film.

This indicates a conditional activation of empathy in individuals with APD.

155
Q

What does the ‘neural switch’ concept imply about empathy in individuals with APD?

A

Individuals with APD may have a neural switch that can be turned on and off, unlike neurotypical individuals where empathy is permanently turned on.

This could explain the inconsistency in empathetic responses among those with APD.

156
Q

How do dysfunctional mirror neurons affect empathy?

A

Dysfunctional mirror neurons may lead to a reduced ability to feel empathy compared to individuals with normal activity.

This dysfunction could be a factor in offending behavior.

Psychology Paper 3 (8 decks)

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