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(2) Physical Modalities > S2_L2: Electrical Stimulation (Pain Relief, Tissue Healing, and Repair) and Iontophoresis > Flashcards

S2_L2: Electrical Stimulation (Pain Relief, Tissue Healing, and Repair) and Iontophoresis Flashcards

1
Q

TRUE OR FALSE on TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION (TENS)

are electrical stimulators that capable of delivering pulsed currents, for depolarizing peripheral nerve fibers through the skin using surface
electrodes.

Application of pulsed electrical current is used for inducing electroanalgesia

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

A

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2
Q

The following statements are true about gate control theory (GCT), EXCEPT:

A. Gating mechanism is performed by the substancia nigra found in the lamina 3 of the spinal cord at which it allows the passageway of pain if the gates are open

B. Once the pain reaches the thalamus & the higher centers of the brain, it will be perceived as painful

C. Pain signals are transmitted by A-delta & C fibers

D. ES will stimulate the heavy myelinated & larger A-beta fibers, allowing faster conduction of nerve velocity going to the higher centers & will reach first the SG

E. None of the above

A

A, gating mechanism is performed by the substancia GELATINOSA found in the lamina 2 of the spinal cord at which it allows the passageway of pain if the gates are open

  • inhibitory nature of SG is activated thus closing the gate
  • pain signals can’t pass through the gate
  • majority of the pain signals will be blocked
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3
Q

The following statements are true about descending pathway inhibitory tract (DPIT), EXCEPT:

A. Aka Endogenous Opiate System / Endorphin Release

B. Opiopeptines controls the pain by binding to specific opioid receptors in the nervous system

C. Electrical stimulation will allow the release of these opiopeptines

D. Leads to analgesia & chemical in nature

E. None of the above

A

E,
* opiopeptines also referred as endorphins & encephalins
* It influences certain areas of the brain (periaqueductal & ruffae nucleus found in the brain stem)
* strongly inhibits transmission of pain signals from the spinal cord to the higher centers of the brain

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4
Q

Match the following modes of application to the type of TENS

  1. Aka High-rate TENS, Uses short-duration high-frequency pulses to produce comfortable sensation without muscle contractions to modulate acute pain (GCT)
  2. Stimulus is modulated to prevent accommodation
  3. Aka Low-rate TENS, Repetitive stimulation of motor nerves to produce brief repetitive muscle contractions/twitches
  4. Stimulation of A delta nerves to produce brief sharp pain
    (DPIT)
  5. Combining sensory TENS (high frequency, short pulse duration) & motor TENS (low frequency, long pulse
    duration)
  6. Intensity up to patient’s maximal tolerance (DPIT)
  7. Aka Point Stimulation / Electroacupuncture, Applied using a probe electrode over acupuncture points, Pain relief via DPIT
  8. Stimulation is delivered in bursts, Pain relief via DPIT

A. CONVENTIONAL TENS
B. ACUPUNCTURE-LIKE TENS
C. BRIEF-INTENSE STIMULATION
D. HYPERSTIMULATION
E. BURST MODE TENS

A
  1. A
  2. A
  3. B
  4. B
  5. C
  6. C
  7. D
  8. E
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5
Q

Match the following modes of application to its parameter settings. *There can be multiple answers in each number

  1. Waveform: Mono-/Biphasic PC (Michlovitz), Biphasic PC (clinical)
  2. Waveform: Monophasic PC (Michlovitz) & (clinical)
  3. Pulse freq: High ~ 100pps (Michlovitz), 80-110 pps/Hz (clinical)
  4. Pulse freq: 2-10pps (Cameron)
  5. Pulse freq: 10 bursts (Cameron)
  6. treatment time: 20-45 mins

A. CONVENTIONAL TENS
B. ACUPUNCTURE-LIKE TENS
C. BRIEF-INTENSE STIMULATION
D. HYPERSTIMULATION
E. BURST MODE TENS

A
  1. A, B, C, E
  2. D
  3. A, C
  4. B
  5. E
  6. B
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6
Q

Match the following modes of application to its parameter settings. *There can be multiple answers in each number

  1. Pulse duration: Long >150 usec (Michlovitz), > 150 usec (clinical)
  2. Pulse duration: 50-80 usec (Cameron)
  3. Pulse duration: 200-300 usec (Cameron)
  4. Pulse duration: 100-300 usec (Cameron)
  5. Intensity: Visible strong muscle twitches (motor)
  6. treatment time: < 15 min

A. CONVENTIONAL TENS
B. ACUPUNCTURE-LIKE TENS
C. BRIEF-INTENSE STIMULATION
D. HYPERSTIMULATION
E. BURST MODE TENS

A
  1. B, C, E
  2. A
  3. B
  4. E
  5. C
  6. C
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7
Q

Match the following modes of application to its parameter settings. *There can be multiple answers in each number

  1. Intensity: visible muscle twitches (motor); brief sharp pain (sensory)
  2. Intensity: Comfortable, tingling sensation
  3. Intensity: visible muscle contraction (motor)
  4. Intensity: highest tolerated painful stimulus (noxious)
  5. treatment time: 20-30 min
  6. treatment time: 30-60 sec to each point

A. CONVENTIONAL TENS
B. ACUPUNCTURE-LIKE TENS
C. BRIEF-INTENSE STIMULATION
D. HYPERSTIMULATION
E. BURST MODE TENS

A
  1. B
  2. A
  3. E
  4. D
  5. A, E
  6. D
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8
Q

Match the following frequency current to its definition.

  1. Minimum frequency required for
    evoking tetanic muscle contraction & causes high skin resistance
  2. Causes lower skin resistance
  3. Thermal effects

A Low-Frequency Current [1-1,000 Hz]
B. Medium-Frequency Current [1,000-10,000 Hz]
C. High-Frequency Current [>10,000 Hz]

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. C
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9
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE:

Heterodyne is a process where we produce a lower frequency from the 2 medium frequency currents which is a series of constructive & destructive interferences.

The amplitude modulated frequencies that are summated is called beat.

A

TT

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10
Q

Match the following interference to its definition

  1. 2 waveforms both fall on the positive side & will add-up
  2. If both fall below the isoelectric line, adding them up will produce a much lower peak
  3. if the 2 waveforms that are applied simultaneously & the first one produces a lower effect & the other one has a positive effect, it will only negate each other

A. Constructive interference
B. Destructive interference

A
  1. A
  2. A
  3. B
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11
Q

TRUE OR FALSE:

INTERFERENTIAL CURRENT(IFC) is the application of alternating medium-frequency currents (1,000-10,000 Hz), which are slightly out-of-phase, through the tissues that is amplitude-modulated to low- requency current for pain relief, muscle re-education, improving circulation and enhancing healing process

A

T

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12
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE:

lower current = beat freq

slight difference between 2 currents = carrier/base freq

A

FF,
lower current = carrier/base freq

slight difference between 2 currents = beat freq

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13
Q

The following statements are true about the frequencies of interferential current (IFC), EXCEPT:

A. Carrier/Base Frequency is the lesser frequency of the 2 interfered original AC

B. Sensory application = 4 kHz, Motor application = 2 kHz

C. Beat Frequency is the difference between the 2 original AC’s; typically between 1-200 Hz

D. Constant Beat Frequency / Selective Beat Frequency is the constant differences between the 2 circuits

E. Variable Beat Frequency / Automatic or Sweep Beat Frequency is the frequency between the 2 circuits that varies within the preselected ranges
(modulated type to address accommodation)

F. None of the above

A

F

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14
Q

TRUE OR FALSE:

Sensory effect of IFC is the cutaneous stimulation of sensory nerve fibers.
There is also analgesic effect via GCT with Wedensky Inhibition of type C nociceptive fibers

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

A

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15
Q

TRUE OR FALSE on proper documentation:

TENS

<mode> x <pulse> x <pulse> x <treatment> using < TENS machine> over <affected> for pain relief.

IFC
<type/mode> IFC x <base></base> x <constant> x <variable beat frequency, if applicable> x <chronicity> using <name> over <affected> for <rationale>.

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true
</rationale></affected></name></chronicity></constant></affected></treatment></pulse></pulse></mode>

A

A

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16
Q

The following statements are true about motor effect of IFC, EXCEPT:

A. Synchronous excitation of the large-diameter, lower- threshold and more excitable motor nerve fibers

B. Versus Physiologic Muscle Contraction → asynchronous excitation of motor nerve fibers

C. Gildemeister Effect = IFC may also mimic pattern of normal physiologic muscle contraction (asynch)

D. Wedensky Inhibition of motor nerve fibers

E. None of the above

A

E

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17
Q

Match the following modes of application to its interferential current

  1. Application of two-medium frequency currents via four electrodes so that they intersect in the tissues
  2. Maximum amplitude modulation effect occurs at 45° to perpendicular lines extending between the 2 circuits & used for localized pain
  3. Scanning of amplitude-
    modulated beats at an arc of ~45°
    that allows current to conduct through a greater volume of tissue & is used for diffused pain
  4. Application of two-medium frequency currents by mixing the two currents in the stimulator prior to application via two electrodes (one-circuit) [bipolar]
  5. Created when three-circuit IFC is applied with three pairs of electrodes contained within two Y-shaped applicators that allows the three currents to intersect within the tissues

A. Quadripolar static
B. Quadripolar scanning
C. Premodulated mode
D. Hexipolar mode

A
  1. B
  2. A
  3. B
  4. C
  5. D
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18
Q

Match the following contraindication to its definition

  1. Over anterior cervical, hemorrhagic, cancerous area & abdominal, pelvic or lumbar areas of pregnant woman in 1st
    trimester
  2. Rate-responsive or demand-type
    cardiac pacemakers or implanted
    cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD)
  3. Deep venous thrombosis, Epileptic episodes, or within 3m from SWD device
  4. Over thoracic cage, cranial area, metal implants & damaged skin
  5. Confused or unreliable
    patients

A. absolute
B. relative (precautions)

A
  1. A
  2. A
  3. A
  4. B
  5. B
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19
Q

Match the following terms to its wound healing process

  1. cascade of initial hemodynamic reactions wherein the platelet will aggregate to stop/control the bleeding followed by the influx of various inflammatory cells which will release mediators & cytokines to promote the next stage of wound healing
  2. Neutrophils, macrophages, & lymphocytes are the cells responsible for cleaning the wound & protecting it from injuries
  3. Neutrophils & macrophages will migrate towards the wound to perform phagocytosis while lymphocytes act as mediator within the wound environment by secreting the cytokines on the injured area
  4. cellular immunity & antibody production is present in this phase & the vasodilation of blood vessels will allow more blood to circulate on the area
  5. Reconstruction part of wound healing wherein cells are working in order to form granulation tissues & to allow formation of new epithelial cells & restore the function of skin & blood vessels
  6. Cells are becoming more mature (maturation phase), can start early during the 3rd wk or after a month or even up to a year and it is where collagen remodels to ensure better tensile strength of the healed area

A. Hemostatsis
B. Inflammatory phase
C. Proliferation phase
D. Remodeling phase

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. B
  4. B
  5. C
  6. D
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20
Q

Match the following terms to its wound healing process

  1. Twin-peak monophasic pulses with Peak voltage of 500V & 10-100 μsec pulse duration that uses constant voltage
  2. Monophasic waveform that is
    continuous or pulsed modulated
    with polarity reversal with Peak amplitude of 999 μA / <1mA that uses constant current
  3. When muscle contraction is
    required to reduce edema
  4. Continuous sine wave output of
    about 2500-5000Hz, modulated to yield 50 bursts per second with each burst is polyphasic time-modulated AC

A. Microcurrents / Low-intensity direct current (LIDC)

B. High Voltage Pulsed [Galvanic] Current (HVPGC / HVPC)

C. Russian Currents (MFBurstAC)

D. Biphasic Pulsed Currents (BPC)

A
  1. B
  2. A
  3. D
  4. C
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21
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE:

Indications for both TENS & IFC is pain control while IFC is only for the relief of muscle spasm, promoting tissue healing, edema reduction & muscle re-education.

Adverse effects include electrical/thermal burns & blistering

A

TT

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22
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE:

Electrical stimulation is for tissue
healing and repair / wound healing.

It can also be used for tissue regeneration, edema control & improve circulation.

A

TT

23
Q

The following statements are true about the General Effects of GALVANOTAXIS, EXCEPT:

A. Polarity is a key feature in wound healing

B. Applying either the anode/cathode will allow the cell to migrate on the injured site

C. Neutrophils, vascular endothelial cells, macrophages will move towards the anode

D. Monocytes, fibroblasts & epidermal cells will move towards the anode as well

E. None of the above

A

D,
Monocytes, fibroblasts & epidermal cells will move towards the cathode

24
Q

The following statements are true about Biophysical Characteristics of a Normal Skin Battery , EXCEPT:

A. Found between stratum corneum
and dermis

B. Direct current bioelectrical system
to maintain tissue health

C. Current flow shift to the injured
area → “Current of Injury”

D. Microcurrent or HVPC mimics and
amplifies the weak human skin
batteries at the wound site

E. None of the above

A

E

25
Q

Match the following phases to its general effects.

  1. Stimulates epidermal cell reproduction and migration which produces a smoother, thinner scar
  2. Initiates the wound repair process
    by its effect on the current of injury & increases blood flow, promotes phagocytosis
  3. Enhances tissue oxygenation, controls infection & solubilizes blood products including necrotic tissue
  4. Stimulates fibroblasts, epithelial cells, wound contraction, DNA and protein synthesis
  5. Increases ATP generation, improves membrane transport & produces better collagen matrix
    organization

A. Inflammation phase
B. Proliferative phase
C. Maturation phase

A
  1. C
  2. A
  3. A
  4. B
  5. B
26
Q

TRUE OR FALSE on General Effects of GALVANOTAXIS:

There is attraction of cells to an electrical charge & is due to POLARITY

Electrical stimulation promotes
tissue healing by ionic effects →
attract or repels charged particles

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

A

27
Q

TRUE OR FALSE:

Anode (+) = proliferative and maturation phases
Cathode (-) = inflammation phase

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

B.

Anode (+) = inflammation phase
Cathode (-) = proliferative and maturation phases

28
Q

The following statements are true about the Effects of ES on wound healing at
the cellular and systemic level, EXCEPT:

A. During inflammation, ES induces a faster inflammatory response, increase the vascular vasodilation to allow better oxygenation & blood flow

B. During proliferation phase, ES generates/facilitates the angiogenesis, formation of collagen, wound contraction, & re-epithelialization

C. During remodeling, ES increases the cellular activity for advanced remodeling at the systemic level

D. None of the above

A

D

29
Q

Match the following phases of wound healing to its effects & cell polarity

Effects:
1. Phagocytosis & autolysis
2. Fibroplasia
3. Wound contraction

Cell polarity:
4. Keratinocytes (+), Epidermal cells (+)
5. Macrophages (-), Neutrophils (-)
6. Fibroblasts (+)

A. Inflammation
B. Proliferative
C. Maturation

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. C
  4. C
  5. A
  6. B
30
Q

Match the following current to its parameters for wound healing

Mode
1. Continuous
2. Pulsed

Polarity
3. Negative (cells); use anode
Positive (cells); use cathode

Pulse Frequency
4. Continuous: 0 Hz
Pulsed: 1-200 Hz

  1. Pulsed: 60-125 pps/Hz
    Pulsed: 1-200 Hz
  2. Pulse Duration: 40-100 μsec

A. Low intensity direct current (LIDC)
B. High voltage pulsed current (HVPC)

A
  1. A
  2. A,B
  3. A,B
  4. A
  5. B
  6. B
31
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE: germicidal effects of ES

Inhibits the growth action of
microorganisms like Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aureus, Staphylococcus aeruginosa.

There are conflicting evidences whether
anode or cathode is the best germicidal effect.

A

FT,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus

32
Q

Match the following current to its parameters for wound healing

Amplitude

  1. Comfortable tingling (1-999 μA)
  2. Comfortable tingling (150-500 V)

Treatment Time
3. 30-90 min
4. 45-60 min

A. Low intensity direct current (LIDC)
B. High voltage pulsed current (HVPC)

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. A,B
  4. B
33
Q

Match the following current to its parameters for edema control

  1. Mode: Pulsed
  2. Polarity: Negative (cells); use anode

Pulse Frequency
3. 100-120 pps/Hz
4. 30-50 pps/Hz; 2-5 sec equal on:off
time

Pulse Duration

  1. 40-100 μsec
  2. 150-350 μsec

Amplitude
7. Comfortable tingling
8. Visible contraction

Treatment Time
9. 20-30 min

A. High voltage pulsed current (HVPC)
B. Biphasic pulsed current (BPC)

A
  1. A,B
  2. A
  3. A
  4. B
  5. A
  6. B
  7. A
  8. B
  9. A,B
34
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE on General Effects of Edema Control:

o Electrical stimulation is indicated if it is due to systemic disorders

o Electrical stimulation is
contraindicated if it is due to immobility & inflammation

A

FF,
indicated = immobility & inflammation
CI = systemic disorders

35
Q

The following statements are true on Edema Control due to inflammation, EXCEPT:

A. ES is used to retard edema formation

B. ES cannot decrease edema

C. Use of cathode → repels negatively charged proteins back to blood vessels & reduces pore size in microvessel walls

D. HVPC is used at sensory level stimulation

E. None of the above

A

E

36
Q

modifiedTRUE OR FALSE on edema Control due to immobility:

o Muscle contraction will induce pumping effect, however, there are conflicting evidences in improving
circulation via muscle contraction

o ES should be used together with
limb elevation and followed by
compression

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

A

37
Q

The following statements are indications of ES for tissue healing, EXCEPT:

A. Wound healing like burns, ulcers (pressure, vascular or neuropathic), surgical wounds

B. Infections

C. Retardation of edema

D. Reduction of edema & Increase blood flow

E. None of the above

A

E

38
Q

The following statements about BPC to increase blood flow are true, EXCEPT:

A. Mode: Pulsed; Polarity: NA

B. Pulse Frequency: 30-50 pps/Hz; 1-2 sec equal on:off time

C. Pulse Duration: 150-350 μsec

D. Amplitude: Visible contraction

E. Treatment Time: 20-30 min

F. None of the above

A

F

39
Q

The following statements on considerations of ES are true, EXCEPT:

A. Electrode Placement should be over & around the wound

B. For Infection control, wrap electrodes with sterile gauze pads; saturate pads with normal saline solution & observe proper aseptic techniques (use of gloves, mask, gown and goggles)

C. electrodes should be warmer than the wound but not warmer than 38°C

D. None of the above

A

D

40
Q

The following statements are PRINCIPLES OF ION TRANSFER, EXCEPT:

A. Ionization & Electromigration / Law of Attraction

B. Non-invasive vs administration using injections

C. Deeper penetration of drug VS topical
administration

D. Bypasses the systemic route vs oral ingestion of medication

E. None of the above

A

E

41
Q

TRUE OR FALSE the statement below is written in the proper documentation format:

ES using <machine> on <body area> x <waveform> x <active> x</active></waveform></machine>

<pulse> x <pulse> x <treatment> to <rationale>
</rationale></treatment></pulse></pulse>

A

T

42
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE on the Iosone Law:

Electrically charged electrode
will repel a similarly charged ion.

The electrostatic repulsion of like
charges is the driving force in iontophoresis.

A

TT

43
Q

The following statements are true about iontophoresis, EXCEPT:

A. Ionto (ionized substances/ medications) + Phoresis (local transfer) = “Ion transfer”

B. Based on LeDuc’s experimental animal work in 1908

C. Introduction of topically applied, physiologically active ions into the epidermis and mucous membrane of the body by the use of continuous direct current.

D. None of the above

A

D

44
Q

TRUE OR FALSE on electrode placement:

Active electrode should be placed directly over the area to be treated while the dispersive electrode is located at a distance longer than the diameter of the smallest electrode.

Cathode is usually larger by 2x than the anode regardless whether cathode is active/ dispersive

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

A

45
Q

TRUE OR FALSE:

HMP can be applied after application of iontophoresis. We must abide by the prescribed dosage of MDs with regards to the drugs

A. Both statements are true
B. Both statements are false
C. Only the 1st statement is true
D. Only the 2nd statement is true

A

D
HMP can’t be applied after application of iontophoresis.

46
Q

The following statements are true about ionohydrokinesis, EXCEPT:

A. if you’re given 2 medications, there’s a chance that both will react against each other

B. Repelling action might affect the delivery of these medications to the target tissue

C. It decreases effectivity of intervention & is only 1/10 effective

D. None of the above

A

D

47
Q

Match the following ions to its indications.

Indications

  1. Fungal infections
  2. Edema reduction
  3. Muscle relaxant; vasodilator
  4. Local anesthetic; Trigger points, Bursitis, Neuritis
  5. Dermal ulcers, slow healing wound

[Source]
A. COPPER [Copper sulfate (CuSO4)]

B. HYALURONIDASE [Wydase]

C. MAGNESIUM [Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)]

D. LIDOCAINE [Xylocaine or Lidocaine
1:50,000 with epinephrine]

E. ZINC [Zinc Oxide (ZnO2)]

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. C
  4. D
  5. E
    * Anode (+) as active electrode
    * all are (+) charge
48
Q

Match the following ions to its indications.

  1. Hyperhidrosis
  2. Musculoskeletal inflammations; Plantar warts
  3. Scar
  4. musculoskeletal inflammation
  5. Soften scar adhesions; sclerosis
  6. Calcium deposits

[source]
A. ACETATE [acetic acid]
B. CHLORIDE [sodium chloride (NaCl)]
C. DEXAMETHASONE PHOSPHATE [Decadron(DexNa2PO3)]
D. IODINE
E. SALICYLATE [Sodium Salicylate (NaSal)]
F. TAP WATER

A
  1. F
  2. E
  3. D
  4. C
  5. B
  6. A
  • CATHODE (-) as active electrode
  • all are (-) charge
    except for tap water which is -/+ charge
49
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE on Safety guide for current density:

  • 0.5 mA/cm2 under the anode
  • 1.0 mA/cm2 under the cathode
A

FF

  • 0.5 mA/cm2 under the cathode
  • 1.0 mA/cm2 under the anode
50
Q

modified TRUE OR FALSE:

Optimal parameters of iontophoresis is intensity = 1.0-4.0 mA, duration = 20-40 min

Example is 40 mA-min = (2mA for 20 min) or (4 mA for 10 min)

A

TT , Essentially intensity should be 1-4(5 max)mA only!

51
Q

TRUE OR FALSE the statement below is written in the correct documentation format:

Iontophoresis X 4cc dexamethasone X 2mA X 20min continuous DC over (L)
lateral epicondyle using cathode as active electrode using IOMED machine to dec inflammation

A

T

52
Q

The following statements are CI of iontophoresis, EXCEPT:

A. Drug allergies/ prior adverse drug reactions

B. Anesthetic skin & recent scars in the area to be treated

C. Metal embedded close to the skin to be treated or patients with cardiac pacemakers

D. Over temporal and orbital areas

E. Acute injury if active bleeding is still present

F. None of the above

A

F

53
Q

Match the following terms to its definition

  1. Used to deliver ions (medications) in to the body using ultrasound
  2. Used to deliver ions (medications) in to the body using electrical current
  3. Uses Pulsed US
  4. Uses DC
  5. 20% duty cycle, 0.5-0.75
    W/cm2, 3 MHz, 5-10 minutes
  6. Current (mA) x Duration
    (min) = mA-min
  7. Sample for dosimetry: Goal = 40
    mA-min
    Options:
    *1mA x 40 min = 40 mA-min
    *2mA x 20 min = 40 mA-min
    *4mA x 10 min = 40 mA-min

A. Phonophoresis
B. Iontophoresis

A
  1. A
  2. B
  3. A
  4. B
  5. A
  6. B
  7. B

(2) Physical Modalities (12 decks)

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