Romantic relationships- JK Flashcards
What is the matching hypothesis (Murstein et al 2014)?
Rather than seeking the most attractive partner, we look for someone of a similar level of attractiveness to ourselves
Why does Murstein propose the matching hypothesis as necessary?
Compromise is necessary due to fear of rejection & need to achieve balance between partners
What study is evidence for the matching hypothesis?
1) Walster et al 1966 computer dance
2) Walster & Walster follow up 1969
3) Taylor et al- internet dating site
What was Walster et al’s procedure for their computer dance study (1966)?
Advertised a “computer dance” for students- first 376 male & 376 female were allowed in for $1.
Each student rated by 4 independent judges on physical attractiveness and completed lengthy questionnaire for similarity data
Random pairing (no man was with a taller woman)
Questionnaire during study
What were Walster et al’s finding from their original computer dance study 1966?
The more physically attractive students were liked more than less attractive students
6 months later, the partners who had dated were the ones who were of similar attractiveness rather than dissimilar
What was the procedure of Walster & Walster’s follow up study (1969)?
Repeat of original study, but students had met beforehand
What were the findings of Walster & Walster’s follow up study (1969)?
Students expressed more liking for those who were the same level of physical attractiveness
What was Taylor et al’s procedure for his research into the matching hypothesis?
Used internet dating site Hotornot, 60 mean & 60 women selected at random (the “initiators”)
Then identified people the initiators had contacted (the “targets”)
Photos of the initiators & targets were rated by independent raters from -3 to 3 (raters were unaware who contacted who)
What were Taylor et al’s findings from his internet dating site research (2011)?
Initial contacts- matching hypothesis wasn’t supported as they contacted a large range of attractiveness including more attractive
Responses from targets supported matching hypothesis (similar rating=respond & chatting, more attractive didn’t respond)
What does the evolutionary theory suggest about romantic relationships?
We form them as they provide a survival & reproductive advantage, so the formation of them can be seen as adaptive
What does the evolutionary theory suggest 1) male & 2) female relationship preferences are?
1) Male’s prefer short-term relationships, to increase chances of his genes to survive, and are less picky but will choose healthy younger females who are faithful (avoid being a cuck)
2) Females produce fewer offspring so are more selective & prefers long-term relationships and males who will provide for her offspring
What are 2 main differences in male and female preferences in a relationship?
1) Long vs short term
2) Selectivity levels
What does Singh’s research suggest?
Across all cultures men prefer women with a waist hip ratio of 0.7 (hour glass shape) as it is a sin of fertility
What does Singh’s research support?
Evolutionary theory- same across all cultures, unlikely to be pregnant (not a cuck)
What is self-disclosure?
Voluntary sharing/revealing of personal info about the self to another person, which can be superficial, low risk or high risk
Why is self-disclosure important in romantic relationships?
Increases interpersonal attraction & closeness, encouraging reciprocal disclosure
What are the norms of self-disclosure?
Moderately personal level in early stages
What are 2 research supports for self-diclosure?
Collins & Miller
Sprecher et al
1) How does Collins & Miller support self disclosure and 2) what is a strength of their research?
1) Support importance of SD in interpersonal attraction- positively related
2) Meta-analysis (real world)
How does Sprecher’s research support self disclosure?
Supports view that SD is positively related to relationship quality and norm being followed is important (turn-taking)
What is a strength of Sprecher’s research as support for self disclosure?
Lab experiment= control and manipulate variables & replication possible
What is a limitation of Sprecher’s research as support for self disclosure?
Lab experiment= Artificial
Lack of population validity as only undergraduate students involved
What are two other evaluation points for self disclosure?
1) Gender differences- Dindia & Allen
2) Cultural differences- Chen
What did Dindida & Allen do/find to do with gender differences in self disclosure?
Meta analysis of 205 studies-women disclosed more than men, supporting view that women disclose more than men
How can cultural differences be used to evaluate self disclosure?
Western disclose a lot more than non-western (China)
Research lacks cultural validity
Who proposed filter theory?
Kerckhoff & Davis (1962)
What is filter theory?
Argues relationships develop through 3 filters, where different factors are important at different times and a field of available is narrowed down to a field of desirables
What are the 3 fields Kerckhoff & Davis outlined in their filter theory?
1) Social demography
2) Similarity of attitudes and values
3) Complementarity of needs
What is involved in social demography as the first filter of filter theory?
Refers to variables such as age, geographical location, ethnicity etc
Occurs without us being aware it does
What is involved in similarity of attitudes and values as the second filter of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory?
Similar/shared attitudes, beliefs and ideas increases communication & helps to progress relationship
People with differing attitudes, values & interests are filtered out here
What is involved in complementarity of needs as the third filter of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory?
Emotional needs become important- referring to how well two people fit together and meet each others needs
What are 2 strengths/ support for filter theory?
1) Kerckhoff & Davis (1962) longitudinal student study
2) Byrne (1970)- common attitudes= increased attraction
Explain Kerckhoff & Davis research as support for their filter theory
Longitudinal study of 94 student couples-several questionnaires over 7 months, assessing shared attitudes and values, degree of complementarily & closeness to partner
FOUND: “Short term” couples= similarity most significant to how close they felt
“Long-term” couples= psychological compatibility most sig. supporting filter model
How does Byrne (1970) support the filter theory?
Found that individuals are more likely to become attracted if they share many common attitudes vs if they only share some if any
What are 5 limitations/criticisms of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory?
1) Levinger et al (1970)- 330 couples (similar to kerckhoff procedure)
2) Davis & Rusbult- attitude alignment effect
3) Online dating
4) Kerckhoff & Davis research= researcher bias & pop. validity
5) Cultural bias
Explain Levinger et al (1970) research as a criticism of filter theory
Used similar procedure to Kerckhoff & Davis but found no evidence that similarity of attitudes & comp. of needs influenced progress - not replicable research
Explain Davis & Rusbult’s attitude alignment effect as a limitation of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory
In long term relationships, partners align their attitudes, suggesting similarity is an effect of a relationship rather than a cause
Explain online dating as a limitation of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory
Reduced importance of some social demography variables- easier to meet those outside usual demographical limits e.g. social classes= Temporal validity of filter theory
Explain limitations of Kerckhoff & Davis’ research as a criticism of their filter theory
Population validity= only student couples
Researcher bias= Research conducted by them to support their theory- could have impacted findings
Explain cultural bias as a limitation of Kerckhoff & Davis’ filter theory
Very western- not applicable to all cultures
What are the 3 main theories of romantic relationships?
1) Social exchange theory
2) Equity theory
3) Rusbult’s investment model
What are the 3 assumptions of social exchange theory?
1) Relationships are evaluated in terms of profit
2) Our perception of profitability and level of satisfaction are determined by our previous experience and possible alternatives
3) Stages of relationship development (4)
What is meant by “relationships are evaluated in terms of profit” as the first assumption of social exchange theory?
-Rewards must outweigh costs to gain a profit from the relationship, otherwise dissatisfaction occurs (profit=rewards-costs)
-Assumes individuals are selfish
-Satisfaction & commitment depend on profitability
-“rewards” & “costs” are subjective & change with time
What is meant by “perception of profitability and level of satisfaction are determined by our previous experience and possible alternatives” as the second assumption of social exchange theory?
Whether an individual is satisfied with their profit depends on expectance caused by previous relationships, known as the Comparison Level (CL)
e.g. poor past rel. =low comparison level
Satisfaction also depends on comp. level of alternatives (CLalt)=rewards & costs found from other possible relationships (can tempt to leave)
What is meant by “stages of relationship development” as the third assumption of social exchange theory?
4 stages:
Sampling= explore rewards & costs of social exchange by experimenting
Bargaining= Beginning of relationship, start exchanging rewards & costs
3) Commitment=Sources of costs & rewards more predictable & relationship more stable as profit will increase
4) Institutionalisation= Partners settle- norms of profit established
What are 2 of strengths/support for social exchange theory?
1) Mills & Clark- evidence, couples high in exchange orientation do evaluate their relationship in this way
2) Real world application- used in couples therapy & is effective
What are 3 criticisms/limitations of social exchange theory?
1) Not applicable to all couples, only those high in exchange orientation
2) Costs & rewards hard to classify & quantify & Doesn’t consider investment
3) Culture bias- western, individualistic cultural values only (not all cultures emphasise costs & rewards)
What is equity theory?
Economic model suggesting a need for each partner to experience a balance between their cost/effort and their benefit/reward rather than maximising (social x theory)
What are the 2 main points of equity theory?
Fairness/ balance- similar profit to partner
Initial ratio not important, changes in ratio are
What does equity theory suggest is the cause of dissatisfaction in a relationship?
Perceived imbalance/lack of fairness in the relationship e.g. one partner puts in more effort than the other or one partner gets a lot more more reward
What does equity theory say about types of dissatisfaction?
Type depends on whether individual is over or under benefiting
Over benefitting= guilty, pity & shame
Under benefitting= Anger, sadness & resentment
Greater imbalance= more motivated to put things right
What are the 3 ways equity theory suggests inequality can be dealt with?
1) Restore actual equity- reducing inputs/increase rewards
2) Restore psychological equity-Convince themselves things are fair the way they are (distort reality)
3- Leave the relationship- physically and/or emotionally
What are 2 strengths of equity theory?
1) Stafford & Canary- support view that equity (rather than profit max) is associated with satisfaction
2) More plausible than social x theory- concepts of investment & fairness included
What are 4 limitations of equity theory?
1) Cause & effect not established- equity cause satisfaction or other way around? (satisfaction causes view of equity)
2) Culture bias- reflect western, individualistic cultures
3) Gender bias
4) Doesn’t apply to all couples- individual differences
Explain gender bias as a limitation of equity theory
There are gender differences in importance of equity, perception of (in)equity & responses to inequity
Not applicable to males as much as females
What does Rusbult’s investment model suggest?
An individual’s level of commitment to their romantic relationship is determined by 3 key factors
What are the 3 key factors Rusbult’s investment model suggests determine an individual’s commitment level?
1) Satisfaction with the relationship
2) Quality of alternatives
3) Level of investment
What is involved in ‘satisfaction with relationship’ as a key factor in Rusbult’s investment model?
A feeling the relationship is rewarding. Depends on relationship outcomes (reward-cost), compared to a comparison level, favourable comparison= satisfied, unfavourable=dissatisfied
What is involved in ‘quality of alternatives’ as a key factor in Rusbult’s investment model?
Belief the relationship offers better rewards to others (CL Alt)
Perception alternative exists= tempted away from current
No alternative= continue relationship (but no relationship could be seen as an attractive alternative)
What is involved in ‘level of investment’ as a key factor in Rusbult’s investment model?
Refers to anything put into a relationship that will be lost if they leave it, investments can include time, emotional energy, mutual friends, property etc.- barriers to leaving
What is the main difference between investment model and social exchange theory?
Emphasis on ‘investment’- explains why some stay in unrewarding relationships
What are 2 pieces of supporting research for Rusbult’s investment model?
1) Impett- 3627 married couple, satisfaction, investment & quality of alt. predicted commitment & breakdown/stability in the future= support all 3 factors
2) Rusbult & Mutz- female survivors of abusive relationships, found high investment & poor alt.=supports investment & real world application
What are 2 criticisms of Rusbult’s investment model?
1) Cultural bias- Western culture- cultural variation with extent that satisfaction, quality of alt. and investments are factors that influence commitment
e.g. Break up not accepted (cultural/religious regions)
2) Overlap between factors
What are 3 general limitations to all 3 economic theories?
1) Assumes we continuously evaluate our relationships
2) Individual differences not considered- don’t apply to all
3) Relationship reduced to economic principles (reward-cost=profit)- some relationships maintained with no profit
What is Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?
Shows the phases of how relationship breakdown occurs
What are the 4 stages of Duck’s phase model (in order)?
1) Intrapsychic phase
2) Dyadic stage
3) Social phase
4) Grave-dressing phase
What is the first phase of Duck’s model of breakdown and what is involved in it?
Intrapsychic stage- Privately dissatisfied, assess negative aspects & consider cost of withdrawal & assess + aspects of alternatives- Not shared with partner
What is the second phase of Duck’s model of breakdown and what is involved in it?
Dyadic stage- confronts partner, discuss feelings and grievances are aired & disputed. My attempt repair & reconciliation, assess costs of joint withdrawal
What is the third phase of Duck’s model of breakdown and what is involved in it?
Social phase- seek support from 3rd parties, receive sympathy. Intention to leave made public, try to justify break-up, putting blame on other person. Negotiate practicalities & face-up to implied social network effects
What is the fourth phase of Duck’s model of breakdown and what is involved in it?
Grave-dressing phase- ‘Aftermath’- relationship is over, engage in retrospection, create social acceptable narrative to set themselves up as good prospect for future relationships
What are 2 strengths of Duck’s phase model?
1) Realistic & positivist model- breakdown is a process & not inevitable- grave-dressing=positive view (reflection)
2) Real-world application- intervention possible, used to prevent breakdown as possible to identify the stage & therapy to help
What distinguishes between the breakdown of friendships vs romantic relationships?
Easier to stop friendships- less investment
Why is the social phase of Duck’s model so important?
Third party support for individual beliefs (sympathy), usually when at social phase, relationship unable to be repaired
What are 3 limitations of Duck’s phase model?
1) Not applicable for all breakups, e.g. ‘sudden death’, abuse, age (marriage, social friends say stay vs dating, social friends say go)
2)Incomplete theory- doesn’t consider personal growth after relationship (revised model does)
3) Low cultural validity- very western, assumes freedom to leave & ability for a social phase
What are virtual relationships?
Interpersonal relationships conducted through social networking sits on the internet rather than face-to-face
What are 3 forms of social relationships?
1) Start online, develop into face-to-face
2) Simultaneously operate online & face-to-face
3) Purely online relationships-never meet face-to face
How do virtual relationships differ from face-to-face relatipnships?
1) Self-disclosure
2) Absence of gating
What are 2 theories on self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
1) Reduced cues theory- Sproull & Kiesler (1989)
2) Hyper-personal model-Walther (1996/2011)
What does Sproull & Kiesler’s reduced cues theory suggest?
Virtual relationships lack many cues present for F2F relationships (appearance, body lang, tone etc)- resulting in deindividuation & disinhibition= blunt communication and a reluctance of self-disclosure
What are the strengths of Reduced cues theory for self disclosure in virtual relationships?
There are none
What are 3 limitations of reduced cues theory for self disclosure in virtual relationships?
1) Lacks temporal validity
2) Walther & Tidwell- cues aren’t absent, just different
3) Acrostics used as subsitutes for facial expressions (e.g. LOL/emoji’s)
What does Walther’s hyper-personal model suggest about self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
Virtual relationships can be more personal& involve GREATER self-disclosure, also occurring earlier on as VR’s develop quicker and more intensely BUT end quicker= Boom & bust due to lower trust
What are 2 strengths of Walther’s hyper-personal model for self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
1) Witty & Joinson (2009)- found online questions were more direct, probing & intimate= deeper SD
2) Suler- Online disinhibition effect- anonymity= decrease of negative reprecussions= higher SD
What are 2 limitations of Walther’s hyper-personal model for self-disclosure in virtual relationships?
1) Reduced cues theory
2) Problems with drawing conclusions from research investigating virt. relationships-variables= hard to generalise
What does absence of ‘gating’ refer to as a difference between F2F and virtual relationships?
A lack of barriers or obstacles that get in the way of two people getting to know each other F2F e.g. physical distance, hindrances (stutter) etc
What research support is there for absence of gating’s effect on virtual relationships?
Zhao et al- social media empowers gated individuals, presenting their identities they can’t in F2F encounters= positive consequence such as confidence (increasing F2F possibilities too)
What are 2 main limitations of research into virtual relationships?
1) Lack of temporal validity
2) Heterogenous nature of VR’s- all very different & hard to compare
