RM YR1 Flashcards
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What is the aim of psychological research?
States what the researcher intends to investigate
Provides a clear purpose for the study
What is a hypothesis?
A precise, testable statement predicting the outcome of the study
Can be:
Directional (one-tailed): Predicts the direction of the effect
Non-directional (two-tailed): Predicts an effect but not the direction
What is an operationalised hypothesis?
A hypothesis where variables are clearly defined and measurable
Example: “Memory will improve after consuming 100mg of caffeine compared to no caffeine”
What are extraneous variables?
Variables that could affect the DV if not controlled
Types:
Participant variables (e.g., age)
Situational variables (e.g., noise)
What is the difference between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV)?
IV: The variable manipulated by the researcher
DV: The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV
What are confounding variables?
Variables that directly affect the DV rather than the IV
Example: Time of day affecting memory performance
What are investigator effects?
When the researcher unintentionally influences the outcome of the study
Example: Tone of voice during instructions
What are demand characteristics?
When participants guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour
Can lead to biased results
How can investigator effects be controlled?
Use of double-blind procedures
Standardised instructions
What is counterbalancing?
Used to control for order effects in repeated measures designs
ABBA method: Half the participants do Condition A first, the other half do Condition B first
What are the limitations of laboratory experiments?
Low ecological validity
Higher risk of demand characteristics
What is randomisation?
Using chance methods to control for bias
Example: Randomly assigning participants to conditions
What is the difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment?
Lab experiment: Conducted in a controlled environment
Field experiment: Conducted in a natural environment
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
High control over variables
Can establish cause and effect
What are the strengths of field experiments?
High ecological validity
Lower risk of demand characteristics
What are the limitations of field experiments?
Less control over extraneous variables
Difficult to replicate
What is a natural experiment?
Uses a naturally occurring IV
Researcher has no control over the IV
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
No control over the IV
Cannot establish cause and effect
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
High ecological validity
Allows research into areas where manipulation would be unethical
What is a quasi-experiment?
IV is based on existing differences between participants (e.g., age or gender)
No manipulation of the IV by the researcher
What are the strengths of independent groups?
No order effects
Quick and easy to conduct
What are the types of experimental designs?
Independent groups: Different participants in each condition
Repeated measures: Same participants in all conditions
Matched pairs: Pairs of participants matched on key variables
What are the limitations of independent groups?
Participant variables may affect results
Requires more participants
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
Controls for participant variables
Requires fewer participants
What are the limitations of repeated measures?
Order effects (e.g., boredom or practice)
Higher risk of demand characteristics
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
Controls for participant variables
No order effects
What is a pilot study?
Small-scale trial run of the research
Helps identify any problems with the design
What are the limitations of matched pairs?
Time-consuming and difficult to match participants
Requires more participants
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
Qualitative data: Descriptive, non-numerical (e.g., interviews)
Quantitative data: Numerical, can be analysed statistically
What are the strengths of quantitative data?
Easier to analyse
Allows for statistical comparisons
What are the limitations of quantitative data?
Lacks depth and detail
May not fully represent participant experiences
What are the strengths of qualitative data?
Rich in detail and meaning
Provides insight into participants’ thoughts
What are the limitations of qualitative data?
Difficult to analyse
Subject to researcher bias
What is primary data?
Data collected directly by the researcher for the specific study
What is secondary data?
Data collected by someone else, used by the researcher
What is the difference between correlation and causation?
Correlation shows a relationship between two variables
Causation shows that one variable directly affects another
What is a case study?
In-depth investigation of a single person or small group
What are the strengths of case studies?
Provides rich, detailed data
Useful for studying rare behaviours
What are the limitations of case studies?
Cannot be generalised
Prone to researcher bias
What is the purpose of peer review in research?
Assess the quality and validity of research
Helps ensure findings are credible and unbiased
What is an Observation?
A research method where behaviour is watched and recorded.
Can take place in naturalistic or controlled settings.
What are Covert and Overt Observations?
Covert: Participants do not know they are being observed.
✅ Reduces demand characteristics.
❌ Raises ethical issues (lack of informed consent).
Overt: Participants know they are being observed.
✅ More ethical.
❌ May lead to demand characteristics.
What is the Difference Between Participant and Non-Participant Observations?
Participant: Researcher joins in with the group they observe.
✅ Provides detailed insight.
❌ May lose objectivity.
Non-participant: Researcher watches from outside the group.
✅ More objective.
❌ Less insight into participants’ experiences.
What are Open and Closed Questions in Questionnaires?
Open Questions: Allow participants to write their own answers.
✅ Rich, detailed data.
❌ Harder to analyse.
Closed Questions: Provide fixed response options.
✅ Easy to analyse.
❌ May lack detail.
What Are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Questionnaires?
✅ Strengths:
Can collect data from large samples.
Easy to replicate.
❌ Weaknesses:
May suffer from social desirability bias.
Questions can be misunderstood.
What are the Three Types of Interviews?
Structured: Pre-planned questions (✅ Reliable, ❌ Less flexible).
Unstructured: No set questions (✅ Detailed, ❌ Hard to replicate).
Semi-structured: Mix of both (✅ Flexible & reliable).
What are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews?
✅ Strengths:
Allows for clarification of answers.
Can gather rich, detailed data.
❌ Weaknesses:
Time-consuming.
Risk of investigator effects (researcher influences response).
What are the Main Ethical Issues in Psychological Research?
Informed Consent: Participants must agree with full knowledge.
Deception: Must only happen if necessary, followed by debrief.
Protection from Harm: No psychological or physical harm.
Confidentiality: Keep participant information private.
Right to Withdraw: Participants must know they can leave at any time.
How Can Ethical Issues Be Dealt With?
Gain informed consent.
Use debriefing after the study.
Give participants the right to withdraw.
Keep data confidential.
What are the Three Measures of Central Tendency?
Mean: Average score (✅ Most sensitive, ❌ Affected by outliers).
Median: Middle score (✅ Not affected by outliers, ❌ Less precise).
Mode: Most common score (✅ Useful for categories, ❌ May not represent dataset well).
What is the Sign Test?
A statistical test used with:
Nominal data.
Repeated measures or matched pairs.
Tests differences between two conditions.
What are the Two Measures of Dispersion?
Range: Highest score - Lowest score.
✅ Easy to calculate.
❌ Affected by outliers.
Standard Deviation: Average spread around the mean.
✅ More precise.
❌ Harder to calculate.
How Do You Calculate the Sign Test?
Record positive (+), negative (-), or no difference (0).
Ignore 0 values.
Count the less frequent sign.
Compare this number to the critical value table.
If the observed value is equal to or less than the critical value, the result is significant.
What is Random Sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
✅ Strengths:
Unbiased and representative (if large enough sample).
Free from researcher bias.
❌ Weaknesses:
Time-consuming.
Can still be unrepresentative by chance.
What is Opportunity Sampling?
Selecting participants who are readily available at the time of the study.
✅ Strengths:
Quick and convenient.
Easy to conduct.
❌ Weaknesses:
Prone to researcher bias.
Unlikely to be representative of the target population.
What is Volunteer Sampling?
Participants self-select by responding to adverts or requests.
✅ Strengths:
Ethical – participants actively consent.
Can reach a large audience through advertisements.
❌ Weaknesses:
Likely to attract participants with certain personality types (e.g. highly motivated).
Less representative of the wider population.
What is Stratified Sampling?
Population divided into subgroups based on characteristics (e.g. age, gender) and participants are selected proportionately.
✅ Strengths:
Highly representative.
Avoids researcher bias.
❌ Weaknesses:
Time-consuming and complex.
Requires detailed knowledge of the population.
What is Systematic Sampling?
Every nth person on a list is selected (e.g. every 5th person).
✅ Strengths:
Unbiased as long as the list is randomised.
Fairly simple to carry out.
❌ Weaknesses:
May still be unrepresentative if there is a hidden pattern in the list.
Time-consuming if the population is large.
