Memory Flashcards
What are the three stores in the Multi-Store Model (MSM)?
Sensory Register, Short-Term Memory (STM), Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Information flows linearly through each store
Each store has a different coding, capacity, and duration
What is the sensory register?
Where information from the senses enters memory
Very large capacity
Very short duration (less than half a second)
Modality specific (iconic for visual, echoic for sound)
What research supports the capacity of STM?
Miller (1956): 7 ± 2 items
STM can be increased using chunking
What research supports the duration of STM?
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
Participants recalled trigrams after delays
STM duration is around 18–30 seconds without rehearsal
What research supports the coding of STM?
Baddeley (1966)
Acoustically similar/dissimilar words
STM relies on acoustic coding
What research supports the duration of LTM
Bahrick et al. (1975)
High school yearbook photo recall
Recognition after 15 years: 90%
Suggests very long-term memory duration
What research supports the coding of LTM?
Baddeley (1966)
Semantically similar/dissimilar word lists
LTM relies on semantic coding
What is a criticism of the Multi-Store Model (MSM)?
Oversimplifies STM and LTM
Suggests unitary stores, which is challenged by KF’s case study
What case study challenges MSM’s view of STM?
KF (Shallice & Warrington)
Brain damage impaired verbal STM but not visual
Suggests multiple STM stores, not one
What are the types of LTM?
Episodic: personal memories
Semantic: general knowledge
Procedural: skills and actions
What research supports different types of LTM?
Tulving (1985): episodic and semantic stored in different parts of the brain
PET scans show different activity for each type
Clive Wearing: damaged episodic, intact procedural memory
What is the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
Developed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Replaced STM in MSM
Focuses on short-term processing and multiple components
What are the components of the Working Memory Model?
Central Executive
Phonological Loop (inner voice)
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (inner eye)
Episodic Buffer (added later)
What is the function of the Central Executive?
Directs attention and allocates tasks
Limited capacity
Coordinates the other components
What research supports the Phonological Loop?
Baddeley et al. (1975)
Word length effect: easier to recall short words
Supports limited capacity of articulatory process
What is the Phonological Loop?
processes verbal and auditory info
Subdivided into:
Phonological store (inner ear)
Articulatory process (inner voice)
What is the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?
Processes visual and spatial info
Subdivided into:
Visual cache (stores images)
Inner scribe (arranges spatial info)
What is the Episodic Buffer?
Integrates info from all other components
Temporary store
Added later by Baddeley (2000)
What research supports the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?
Logie (1995): divided into visual and spatial
Dual task studies show interference if both tasks use same component
What is a strength of the WMM?
KF’s case: supports separate components
Impaired verbal STM, intact visual processing
What is interference theory in forgetting?
Two types:
Proactive interference: old interferes with new
Retroactive interference: new interferes with old
What is a limitation of the Central Executive?
Vague and under-explained
Needs further clarification or subdivision
What research supports interference theory?
McGeoch & McDonald (1931)
Word list learning
Similar material caused more forgetting
What is retrieval failure theory?
Forgetting occurs due to absence of cues
Encoding specificity principle: cue must be present at encoding and retrieval
What research supports context-dependent forgetting?
Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Divers learned and recalled lists on land or underwater
Recall was worse when context changed
What research supports state-dependent forgetting?
Carter & Cassaday (1998)
Antihistamines created different physiological states
Recall was worse when states didn’t match
What are the cognitive interview techniques?
Report everything
Reinstate context
Reverse the order
Change perspective
What research supports the cognitive interview?
Fisher et al. (1987): trained detectives used cognitive interview
Gathered more accurate info than standard methods
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
Includes social dynamics (e.g., eye contact, reducing anxiety)
Builds on the original cognitive interview
What are limitations of the cognitive interview?
Time consuming
Requires specialist training
Some techniques more effective than others
What research supports effectiveness of cognitive interview in meta-analysis?
Köhnken et al. (1999)
50 studies: cognitive interview produced more correct info
But also more incorrect info
What is the effect of misleading information on eyewitness testimony?
Misleading questions can distort memory
Example: leading questions or post-event discussion
What research shows effects of leading questions?
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Car crash videos with different verbs
“Smashed” led to higher speed estimates than “hit”
What research shows effects of post-event discussion?
Gabbert et al. (2003)
Pairs watched different angles of the same event
71% recalled information they hadn’t seen
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law in relation to anxiety and EWT?
Moderate anxiety leads to best recall
Too low or too high anxiety worsens performance
Inverted-U shape relationship
What are leading questions and how do they affect EWT?
Leading questions suggest a particular answer
Can distort eyewitness memory
Linked to response-bias or substitution explanation
What study supports the effect of leading questions?
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Participants estimated car speeds using verbs like “smashed” or “contacted”
“Smashed” = higher speed estimates
Shows question wording affects memory recall
What is the substitution explanation in Loftus and Palmer’s research?
Leading question changes memory
Example: “smashed” group more likely to report broken glass (none existed)
Memory not just influenced, but altered
What is post-event discussion?
When witnesses discuss the event after it happens
Can lead to misinformation effect
Creates memory conformity
What study supports post-event discussion effects?
Gabbert et al. (2003)
Participants viewed different videos of the same crime
71% recalled info they hadn’t seen
Control group: 0% inaccuracies
What explanations are given for post-event discussion effects?
Memory contamination: information becomes mixed
Memory conformity: agreeing with others to fit in or appear right
What is a criticism of Loftus and Palmer’s research?
Artificial task: watching film clips, lacks emotional involvement
Lacks external validity, doesn’t reflect real eyewitness experience
What is one strength of research into misleading information?
Practical applications: real-world use in legal system
Police and legal professionals can improve interview techniques
Loftus claimed leading questions can have serious real-life consequences
What is a limitation regarding individual differences in EWT?
Older people less accurate in EWT
Anastasi and Rhodes (2006): accuracy varies by age
People more accurate when identifying individuals of their own age group
What study suggests anxiety has a negative effect on recall?
Johnson and Scott (1976)
Weapon-focus effect
Knife condition = poorer recall of face than pen condition
Anxiety leads to tunnel vision on weapon
How does anxiety affect eyewitness testimony?
Mixed findings: anxiety may improve or impair recall
Important to distinguish between physical arousal and emotional stress
What is the weapon focus effect?
Witness focuses attention on weapon
Reduces ability to recall other details
Related to heightened anxiety
What is a criticism of Johnson and Scott’s weapon focus study?
May measure surprise not anxiety
Pickel (1998): poor recall for unusual items (e.g., raw chicken), regardless of threat
Suggests unusualness, not anxiety, causes effect
What study supports a positive effect of anxiety on EWT?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Real-life gun shop shooting
High anxiety witnesses gave more accurate recall months later
Anxiety may enhance memory in real situations
What methodological strengths did Yuille and Cutshall’s study have?
Naturalistic setting
High ecological validity
Participants were real eyewitnesses
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law in the context of EWT?
Performance increases with stress to a point
Too little or too much stress impairs memory
Inverted U-shaped relationship
What are criticisms of the inverted-U explanation?
Oversimplified view of anxiety
Doesn’t consider cognitive aspects like worry or distraction
Reduces complex experience to arousal level
What is the cognitive interview (CI)?
Method to improve EWT
Based on psychological understanding of memory
Developed by Fisher and Geiselman (1992)
What are the four techniques of the cognitive interview?
Report everything: even trivial details
Reinstate context: mental reinstatement of the environment
Reverse the order: prevents dishonesty and schemas
Change perspective: reduces influence of expectations
What is the Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI)?
Includes social and communication strategies
Eye contact, reducing anxiety, asking open-ended questions
Builds rapport between interviewer and witness
What research supports the effectiveness of the cognitive interview?
Fisher et al. (1987): trained detectives with CI in Miami
Gained significantly more accurate and detailed information
What did Köhnken et al. (1999) find in their meta-analysis of CI?
CI produced more correct info than standard interview
But also more incorrect info
Suggests greater quantity, not always better quality
What is one criticism of the cognitive interview?
Time-consuming and resource intensive
Requires proper training
Not all techniques may be equally useful or applied consistently
What evaluation point relates to variations of the CI in practice?
Police often use partial CI (e.g., report everything + context reinstatement)
Hard to compare studies due to lack of standardisation
Variation affects reliability of research findings
What is the overall evaluation of the CI technique?
Increases recall but also errors
More useful in professional contexts with trained officers
Must balance effectiveness with practicality
