geender Flashcards
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex: Biological status (male or female) determined by chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy
Gender: Psychological and cultural differences between males and females
Key Point: Sex is biological, while gender is influenced by society and upbringing
What are sex-role stereotypes?
Expectations within society about how males and females should behave
Examples:
Males = assertive, aggressive
Females = nurturing, emotional
Research: Smith & Lloyd (1978) – Mothers treated babies differently depending on perceived gender
What is androgyny?
Displaying both masculine and feminine traits
Example: Being competitive (masculine) and caring (feminine)
Associated with better psychological well-being
Key Research: Bem (1974) – Developed the BSRI (Bem Sex Role Inventory)
What is the BSRI (Bem Sex Role Inventory)?
Self-report questionnaire measuring masculinity, femininity, and androgyny
60 items rated on a 7-point scale
Classifies individuals into four categories:
Masculine
Feminine
Androgynous
Undifferentiated
What are the evaluation points of the BSRI?
✔️ High test-retest reliability
✔️ Pioneering tool in gender research
❌ Self-report bias – Participants may give socially desirable answers
❌ Cultural bias – Based on American stereotypes
How do chromosomes influence gender development?
23rd chromosome pair determines sex
XX = Female
XY = Male
Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which triggers testes development
What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?v
Genetic disorder affecting males (XXY chromosome pattern)
Symptoms:
Reduced body hair
Breast development
Poor language skills
What is the role of hormones in gender development?
Testosterone: Linked to aggression and spatial skills
Oestrogen: Linked to emotional sensitivity and menstrual cycle
Oxytocin: Promotes bonding and nurturing behaviour
What research supports the role of testosterone?
Van Goozen et al. (1995): Transgender individuals undergoing hormone therapy showed increased aggression when given testosterone
What are the evaluation points of the biological explanation?
✔️ Scientific research supports the role of hormones
✔️ Twin studies show genetic influence
❌ Reductionist – Ignores social and environmental factors
❌ Does not explain individual differences
What is Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender development?
Gender development occurs in stages:
Gender Identity (2-3 years): Child recognises own gender
Gender Stability (4-6 years): Child understands gender is consistent over time
Gender Constancy (6+ years): Child understands gender remains constant across situations
What is Turner’s syndrome?
Genetic disorder affecting females (XO chromosome pattern)
Symptoms:
Webbed neck
Lack of menstrual cycle
High verbal ability but poor spatial skills
What are the evaluation points of atypical chromosome patterns?
✔️ Supports the role of nature
❌ Cannot separate biological influence from environmental factors
❌ Small sample sizes reduce generalisability
What is the evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory?
✔️ Research support
✔️ Explains how understanding changes with age
❌ Ignores biological influences
❌ Underestimates the role of social learning
What research supports Kohlberg’s theory?
Slaby and Frey (1975): Children with higher gender constancy paid more attention to same-sex models
What is gender schema theory?
Children develop gender-related schemas from an early age
Organises information about gender roles
Develops through observation and experience
What research supports gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson (1981): Children remembered gender-consistent information better than inconsistent information
What is social learning theory (SLT)?
Gender behaviours are learned through:
Observation
Imitation
Reinforcement
What research supports SLT?
Perry and Bussey (1979): Children imitated same-sex models more than opposite-sex models
What is the evaluation of SLT?
✔️ Explains cultural differences
✔️ Practical applications
❌ Ignores biological factors
What are the social explanations of GID?
Overly close relationships with parents
Stoller (1975): GID linked to mother-son relationships
What is the interactionist explanation of GID?
Combination of biological and social factors
What is the evaluation of GID explanations?
✔️ Holistic approach
❌ Difficult to establish cause and effect
What is the nature vs nurture debate in gender development?
Nature: Biological explanations
Nurture: Social learning and cultural explanations
What is the Oedipus Complex?
Occurs in boys during the phallic stage
Boy desires mother and feels rivalry toward father
Fear of castration anxiety leads to identification with father
What is the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
Developed by Freud
Based on the Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls)
Children experience unconscious conflicts during the phallic stage (3-6 years)
Gender identity forms through identification with the same-sex parent
What is the evaluation of the psychodynamic explanation?
✔️ First theory to link gender development to early childhood experiences
✔️ Highlights unconscious motivation
❌ Based on case studies like Little Hans (not generalisable)
❌ Lacks scientific credibility
What are the ethical issues in gender research?
Social sensitivity
Protection of participants
What is the Electra Complex?
Occurs in girls during the phallic stage
Girl desires father and experiences penis envy
Eventually identifies with mother as a result of envy and social pressure
What did Mead conclude from her research?
Gender roles are largely influenced by culture rather than biology
Supports the nurture argument
What did Mead (1935) study in her cross-cultural research?
Observed gender roles in three tribes in New Guinea:
Arapesh: Both sexes were gentle and cooperative
Mundugumor: Both sexes were aggressive and hostile
Tchambuli: Women were dominant, and men were more emotionally dependent
What is the evaluation of Mead’s research?
✔️ Shows how culture shapes gender roles
❌ Possible researcher bias – Mead may have exaggerated cultural differences
❌ Later studies found more similarities between genders across cultures
How does culture influence gender roles?
Different cultures reinforce different gender expectations
Collectivist cultures often emphasise traditional gender roles
Individualistic cultures tend to promote gender equality
What research supports the influence of culture on gender?
Barry et al. (1957): Found that nurturing behaviours were encouraged in girls across many cultures, while independence was encouraged in boys
What is the evaluation of cultural influence on gender?
✔️ Explains cross-cultural differences
❌ Difficult to separate nature vs nurture
❌ Research often relies on subjective observations
How does the media influence gender roles?
Media portrays stereotypical gender roles
Men often shown in leadership roles
Women depicted as nurturing or domestic
What research supports media influence on gender?
Williams (1986): Studied a town before and after TV was introduced
Found that children became more gender-stereotyped after watching TV
What is the evaluation of media influence?
✔️ Highlights the media’s role in reinforcing stereotypes
✔️ Useful for creating social change through positive role models
❌ Difficult to establish cause and effect
What is Gender Dysphoria?
Condition where an individual’s biological sex does not match their gender identity
Causes significant distress and discomfort
Previously known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID)
What is the Brain Sex Theory of Gender Dysphoria?
Suggests that Gender Dysphoria is caused by differences in brain structure
Focuses on the BSTc region (Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis)
BSTc is larger in males than females
What research supports the Brain Sex Theory?
Zhou et al. (1995): Found that the BSTc region in transgender women was similar in size to cisgender women
Suggests a biological basis for Gender Dysphoria
How might prenatal hormones influence Gender Dysphoria?
Abnormal exposure to hormones in the womb could affect brain development
High or low levels of testosterone may masculinise or feminise the brain
What is the evaluation of the Brain Sex Theory?
✔️ Scientific evidence from post-mortem studies
✔️ Explains why some individuals experience gender dysphoria
❌ Small sample sizes
❌ Correlation does not imply causation
What is the evaluation of hormonal explanations?
✔️ Explains why some individuals feel a mismatch between sex and gender
❌ Difficult to test in humans
❌ Does not explain why all individuals with abnormal hormone levels do not experience dysphoria
How does childhood trauma explain Gender Dysphoria?
Early trauma or overly close parent-child relationships may influence gender identity
Example: Boys with distant fathers may identify more with their mothers
What research supports the social explanation?
Stoller (1975): Found that many male-to-female transgender individuals had overly close relationships with their mothers
What is the evaluation of the social explanation?
✔️ Explains family influences
❌ Cannot establish cause and effect
❌ Reductionist – Ignores biological factors
What is the interactionist explanation of Gender Dysphoria?
Combines biological and social explanations
Suggests that a combination of brain structure, hormones, and upbringing leads to Gender Dysphoria
What is the psychoanalytic explanation of Gender Dysphoria?
Based on Freudian theory
Suggests that Gender Dysphoria results from unresolved childhood conflicts
Often linked to overly close mother-son relationships in males
Gender identity issues arise from difficulty in establishing a separate identity
What is the best treatment for Gender Dysphoria?
Combination of:
Hormone therapy
Counselling
Gender reassignment surgery
What research supports the psychoanalytic explanation of Gender Dysphoria?
Stoller (1975): Found that male-to-female transgender individuals often had overly close relationships with their mothers
Supports the idea that family dynamics play a role in gender identity development
What is the evaluation of the psychoanalytic explanation?
✔️ Explains individual differences in gender identity
❌ Lacks scientific evidence
❌ Difficult to test unconscious processes
❌ Ignores the role of biological factors
