RM - Features of science

Question 1

Empirical

Answer 1

A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing, not hearsay or rational argument.

Question 2

Falsifiability

Answer 2

The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong.

Question 3

Paradigm

Answer 3

‘A shared set of assumptions about the subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to its study’ (Kuhn, 1962).

Question 4

What is the process of the inductive model of the scientific process?

Answer 4

1. observations
2. testable hypothesis
3. conduct a study to test the hypothesis
4. draw conclusions (and refine)
5. propose theory

Question 5

What is the process of the deductive model of the scientific process?

Answer 5

1. observations
2. propose theory
3. testable hypothesis
4. conduct a study to test the hypothesis (refine)
5. draw conclusions

Question 6

Scientific knowledge is based on what 5 key features?

The features of science

Answer 6

Empirical methods
Objectivity
Replicability
Theory construction
Hypothesis testing

Question 7

Explain empirical methods as a feature of science

Answer 7

Information is gained through direct observation or experiment rather than from unfounded beliefs ro reasoned argument. (There have been times in human history when scientific evidence has come from reasoned argument, but scientists now look for empirically based facts.)

Question 8

Why is important that empirical methods are used in scientific research?

Answer 8

Because people can make claims about anything (such as the truth of a theory, the benefits of a treatment or the taste of a hamburger), but the only way we know such things to be true us through direct testing, i.e. empirical evidence.

Question 9

Explain objectivity as a feature of science

Answer 9

Empirical data should be objective (i.e. not affected by the expectations of the researcher). Systematic collection of data is at the heart of the scientific method.

In order to be more objective the ideal is to carefully control conditions in which research is conducted, i.e. in a laboratory. Such controlled environments are used for observational studies as well as experiments.

Question 10

How can research be more objective?

Answer 10

In order to be more objective the ideal is to carefully control conditions in which research is conducted, i.e. in a laboratory. Such controlled environments are used for observational studies as well as experiments.

Question 11

What is at the heart of the scientific method in terms of objectivity?

Answer 11

Systematic collection of data is at the heart of the scientific method.

Question 12

Explain replicability as a feature of science

Answer 12

One way to demonstrate the validity of any observation, questionnaire or experiment is to repeat it. If the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results.

In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their procedures carefully so someone else can repeat them exactly and verify the original results.

This may sound like reliability but it is actually without validity. In order to test reliability we would test the same people in exactly the same way, but, for replication, psychologists usually test a different group of people and often use a slightly different task to see if similar behaviour is observed.

Question 13

What is one way to demonstrate the validity of any observation, questionnaire or experiment?

Answer 13

Repeat it. f the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results.

Question 14

What it is important to do to achieve replication?

Answer 14

In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their procedures carefully so someone else can repeat them exactly and verify the original results.

Question 15

What is the difference between reliability and replicability?

Answer 15

In order to test reliability we would test the same people in exactly the same way, but, for replication, psychologists usually test a different group of people and often use a slightly different task to see if similar behaviour is observed.

Question 16

Explain theory construction as a feature of science

Answer 16

Facts alone are meaningless. Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts. Such theories then help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us.

Scientists use both inductive and deductive methods, so sometimes theory comes before hypothesis testing and sometimes it comes after.

Question 17

Why must a theory be constructed?

Answer 17

Facts alone are meaningless. Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts.

Question 18

What is a theory?

Answer 18

A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.

Question 19

What do theories help us to do?

Answer 19

Help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us.

Question 20

What two methods of theory construction/the scientific process do scientists use?

Answer 20

Both inductive and deductive methods, so sometimes theory comes before hypothesis testing and sometimes it comes after.

Question 21

In what method does theory construction come before hypothesis testing?

Answer 21

Deductive method.

Question 22

In what method does theory construction come after hypothesis testing?

Answer 22

Inductive method.

Question 23

Explain hypothesis testing as a feature of science

Answer 23

Theories are modified through the process of hypothesis testing. This is another essential characteristic of science where the validity of a theory is tested. A good theory must be able to generate testable expectations. These are stated in the form of a hypothesis (or hypotheses). If a scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis, then the theory requires modification.

Hypothesis testing as we know it only developed in the 20th century. Science as a method for discovering reliable knowledge and the process itself is constantly evolving and improving.

Question 24

Through what process are theories modified?

Answer 24

Hypothesis testing.

Question 25

What is an example of a characteristic of science where the validity of a theory is tested.

Answer 25

Hypothesis testing.

Question 26

A good theory must be able to do what?

Answer 26

Generate testable expectations.

Question 27

How are testable expectations of a good theory stated?

Answer 27

In the form of a hypothesis (or hypotheses).

Question 28

What does it mean for a theory if a scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis?

Answer 28

Then the theory requires modification.

Question 29

When did hypothesis testing as we know it develop?

Answer 29

20th century

Question 30

What is happening to the science as a method for discovering reliable knowledge and the process itself?

Answer 30

It is constantly evolving and improving.

Question 31

What did Karl Popper argue?

Answer 31

That it was not possible to confirm a theory; it was only possible to disconfirm it.

Question 32

What did Kuhn propose?

Answer 32

That there are two main phases in science: normal science and a revolutionary shift.

Question 33

What is an example of a paradigm shift?

Answer 33

The revolution in our understanding of the universe due to the work of the Polish astronomer Copernicus in the 16th century. He overthrew the belief held for almost 2,000 years that the earth was the centre of the universe. Such changes are not as logical as Popper’s view of science might suggest. According to Kuhn, scientific progress is more like a religious conversion and is related to social factors (e.g. what other people are saying).