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Psychology All Papers Revision > RM: Experiments > Flashcards

RM: Experiments Flashcards

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1
Q

Define IV

A

The variable that changes or is manipulated by the researcher to see if it has an effect on the DV

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2
Q

Define DV

A

Variable that the researcher measures. To see the effect of the IV

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3
Q

State the difference between an aim and a hypothesis (2 marks)

A

Aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
Whereas
Hypothesis is a specific testable statement in which researcher predicts what will happen between the variables

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4
Q

Directional hypothesis frame

A

There will be significantly higher/faster/more (operationalised DV) when participants (one condition of IV) compared to when participants (other condition of the IV

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5
Q

Non directional hypothesis frame

A

There will be a significant difference in (operationalised DV) when participants (one condition of IV) compared to when participants (other condition of the IV)

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6
Q

When do you use directional hypothesis and when do you use a non directional hypothesis

A

Directional:
All past research has shown
Previous research has shown

Non directional:
New area of research
Limited previous research
Mixed findings

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7
Q

Define extraneous variables (2)

A

Unwanted extra variables other than the IV (1 mark) that could have an effect of the DV, this would lower the internal validity of the study ( 2nd mark)

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8
Q

3 main causes of extraneous variables

A

Situational factors - things to do with the environment the research is carried out in e.g. task difficulty OR standardised instructions.

  1. Participant variables - things to do with the Ppts e.g. ages, gender, IQ, eye sight, hearing, personality. TOPT TIP!! These can only be used for an independent groups design, not matched pairs or repeated measures.
  2. Experimenter variables - things to do with the researcher e.g. investigator effects.
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9
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

This is when an extraneous variable is not controlled for and it DOES affect the DV and so it becomes a confounding variable.

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10
Q

Describe a lab experimental method

A

An experiment conducted in a lab which is a highly controlled environment, (1 MARK) where the researcher manipulates (changes) the independent variable (IV) and records (measures) the effect on the dependent variable (DV) 2ND MARK.

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11
Q

AO3 strengths for lab method

A

High level of control over extraneous variables e.g. light as its carried out in a fake environment, therefore cause and effect can be established between the IV and the DV which increases the internal validity of the research.

High in reliability as the experiment can be easily repeated in the same conditions to check for consistent results.

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12
Q

AO3 limitations for lab method

A

Lacks Ecological validity as it’s carried out in a fake environment therefore it is difficult to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study, lowering the external validity.

Can encourage demand characteristics, where the Ppt’s change their natural behaviour based on clues given off by the researcher this could lead to ppts choosing to either help or hinder the researcher, reducing the internal validity.

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13
Q

Describe a field experiment

A

An experiment which takes place in a natural environment (for the ppts) such as an office or school (1 MARK) where the researcher manipulates (changes) the independent variable (IV) and records (measures) the effect on the dependent variable (DV) 2ND MARK.

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14
Q

AO3 strengths for field experiment

A

Less prone to demand characteristics as people might not know they are being watched so they are less likely to guess clues given off by the researcher and change their natural behaviour. Therefore increasing the internal validity.

High ecological validity as it is based in a real life setting therefore it is easier to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study to other similar settings increasing the external validity.

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15
Q

AO3 limitations for a field experiment

A

Low in reliability as the environment is real so it is difficult to repeat with exactly the same conditions to check for consistent results.

This could create an ethical issue of lack of informed consent as people may not be aware they are being studied on so wouldn’t have given their consent. If they become aware they may become upset and wish to withdraw their data from the research.

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16
Q

Describe a natural experiment

A

The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV. This is a natural experiment because the variable would have changed even if the experimenter was not interested.

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17
Q

AO3 strengths for natural experiment

A

Natural experiments provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons. For example, Rutter’s study on Romanian orphans would have been unethical to manipulate unless the institutionalisation (IV) had not occurred naturally. Therefore, natural experiments contribute to a greater psychological understanding of behaviour.

High ecological validity as natural experiments are often based in a real life setting therefore it is easier to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study to other similar settings increasing the external validity

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18
Q

AO3 limitations for natural experiment

A

Naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely which limits opportunities for research, unlike lab experiments where IVs can be manipulated by the researcher any time. Suggesting other types of experiment may be more convenient for research than natural experiments.

Low control over extraneous variables as natural experiments usually take place in a natural environment. Therefore it is difficult to establish cause and effect between the IV and the DV lowering the internal validity of the study.

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19
Q

Describe a quasi experiment

A

An experiment which has an IV based on an existing difference between people (1 mark) which the researcher has not manipulated e.g. age or gender (1 MARK) and the researcher records (measures) the effect on the DV

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20
Q

AO3 strength for quasi

A

REMEMBER –
QUASI CAN BE CONDUCTED IN A NATURAL OR CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT (Field or Lab). THEREFORE, DEPENDING ON THE SCENARIO, YOU WOULD HAVE TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE EVALUATION (STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES).

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21
Q

AO3 limitations of a quasi experiment

A

Sample bias as the sample being studied may have unique characteristics, which may mean that it is difficult to generalise to the target population decreasing the external validity of the study.

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22
Q

What are the controls for experimental methods

A

Double/single blind
Randomisation
Standardisation

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23
Q

What are the problems with experimental methods that we need to control for

A

Demand characteristics and bias

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24
Q

How do you control for demand characteristics in an experimental method

A

Use a double or single blind

Double blind: getting another researcher who does not know the true aims of the research (context) to carry out the experiment. No clues are given off

Single blind: keeping the aim of the research hidden from the participant. Ppts is unsure about the aim so is unable to display demand characteristics. Increases internal validity

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25
Q

How do we control for bias in an experimental method

A

Randomisation and standardisation

Randomisation: aspects of research done randomly and not decided by researcher. All potential items in a hat. Draw out as many needed for condition 1 and then draw out however many needed for condition 2

Standardisation: all participants experience the same environment and instructions to avoid extraneous variables. Matching elements on task difficulty. Same instructions read or printed.

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26
Q

Describe independent groups design and how to conduct it

A

Ppts take part in one condition only. Each condition has different groups of ppts

Groups is recruited
Split into equal sized groups
A different group is allocated for each condition

27
Q

AO3 strengths for independent groups design

A

There will be no order effects as ppts only take part in one condition so they will not get bored/fatigued or better at the task/have lasting effects from one condition to the next (context) UNLIKE repeated measures design where ppts take part in all conditions and could have order effects.

Can be used when repeated measures design is inappropriate (e.g. quasi experiments when looking at gender differences) as each condition needs different Ppts

28
Q

AO3 limitations of independent groups design

A

Individual differences may affect the DV as there are separate groups of Ppts in each condition e.g. some Ppts could have a better memory which wouldn’t be suitable in a memory study lowering the internal validity UNLIKE repeated measures that uses the same group of indivudals in all conditions to reduce the effect of individual differences.

More Ppts are needed as two different groups are required for the different conditions UNLIKE repeated measures where you use less ppts as every ppt takes part in all condition

29
Q

Describe repeated measures design and how to conduct it

A

All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment.

Ppts complete one condition.
*After a sufficient time lapse (an hour) they will complete the other condition.
*The task (DV) should be different but matched on difficulty/measuring the same thing.

30
Q

AO3 strength for repeated measures design

A

Individual differences between participants in each condition are removed e.g. IQ as potential confounding variables, as the same Ppts take part in all conditions. Therefore the researcher can be more sure that any changes in the DV are due to the IV and not any other variable increasing the internal validity of the research unlike IGD that will use different Ppts in different conditions so individual differences could affect the DV.

Requires fewer participants as the same Ppts take part in all conditions UNLIKE in an independent measures design as separate groups are needed for separate conditions.

31
Q

AO3 limitation for repeated measures

A

Order effects may occur when partcipants take part in more than one experimental condition they may perform worse in the second condition (due to boredom or fatigue) or better in the second condition (due to practice), or there may be lasting effects from condition 1 to condtion 2 lowering the internal validity UNLIKE independent measures where ppts only take part in one condition so cannot be susceptible to order effects.

Increased chances of demand characteristics as participants take part in all conditions. They may pick up on clues given off by the researcher as they spend much more time with them, or from the research situation , and change their natural behaviour to help or hinder the research(context) unlike IGD where ppts are less likely to pick up on clues as they only take part in one condition

32
Q

Describe matched pairs and how to conduct it

A

Ppts are matched on important characteritsics in the study e.g. age or IQ. By giving them an appropriate test and matching two ppts with the same score.
Each member of the pair is then randomly allocated across each condition

Ppts are matched on important characteritsics in the study e.g. age or IQ.
*Ppts are pre-tested on this variable.
* Ppts are matched in to pairs with a person with the same score.
* Each member of the pair is then randomly allocated across each condition.

33
Q

AO2 strengths for repeated measures design

A

Reduces individual differences between participants as it matches ppts on variables important to the reserach, such as IQ/age/happiness. Therefore, the researcher can be more sure that any changes in the DV are due to the IV and not any other variable. Unlike IGD where separate Ppts are in separate conditions

There will be no order effects as ppts only take part in one condition so they will not get bored/fatigued or better at the task/have lasting effects from one condition to the next UNLIKE repeated measures design where ppts take part in all conditions and could have order effects.

34
Q

AO3 limitations for matched pairs

A

very time consuming to match up and find similar participants. The psychologists would need a very large pool of people UNLIKE repeated measures design where you use the same ppts in all conditions.

Individual differences cannot be fully eliminated. Psychologists match ppts on variables important for the research but are not able to match ppts on all variables. Therefore this could question the validity of the matched-pairs design. UNLIKE RM where each condition will use the same ppts therefore, indivudal differences will be eliminated.

35
Q

What are the ways in which we can control for an experimental design

A

Random allocation
Counterbalancing

36
Q

What are the problems with which experimental designs that cause us to control for them

A

Individual differences - IDG
And
Order effects - RM

37
Q

How do we control for individual differences and order effects

A

Random allocation:
Ensures each ppt has same chance of being in one condition as any other condition.

Write names of Ppts on equal sized paper. Put into a hat. Then randomly pick out ppts Agnes and place half in condition 1 and half in condition 2

Counterbalancing:
To control and reduce order effects

Half the ppts complete condition A then condition B
The other half complete condition B first then condition A
Order effects are BALANCED (don’t say eliminated as ppts still complete 2 tasks) across both conditions

38
Q

Explain the difference between a population and a sample (2)

A

A population is a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest.
Whereas
A sample is a group of people taken from the target population to take part in research

39
Q

What are the 5 sampling techniques

A

Random sampling
Systematic sampling
Volunteer sampling
Opportunity sampling
Stratified sampling

40
Q

What are the three things we can evaluate for each sampling method

A

Bias
Representative
Time

41
Q

What is random sampling and how?

A

Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected

How?
Create a complete list of all the target population
Write names on equal size pieces of paper and put in a hat
Without looking select however many people you want in your sample

42
Q

AO3 for random sampling

A

Potentially unbiased as everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the study (context). Hence it’s potentially more representative and allows researcher to draw conclusions.
However still a chance that an unrepresentative sample may be drawn at random

Very time consuming because it takes time and can be difficult collecting all the names of participants to take part in the study (context) and it is not guaranteed participants would want to take part in the research.

43
Q

What is systematic sampling and how

A

A ‘system; is applied to select ppts

How?
Create a sampling frame to organise target population e.g. alphabetical order
Decide on system e.g. every 3rd or 7th person chosen until enough ppts for sample

44
Q

AO3 for systematic sampling

A

Avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is chosen to take part in the study (context) as it is objective once the system to select ppt is established.

The sample may not be representative as not everyone has an equal chance of being picked therefore it is difficult to generalise to the target population (context). Moreover creating a system and collecting names would be time consuming and difficult for the researcher

45
Q

What is Stratified sampling and how

A

An advanced way where the makeup of the sample reflects the proportions of certain sub groups in target population e.g. if 70% of the target population are female then 70% of the sample will be female as well.

How?
Identify different sub groups
Calculate how many of each proportion you would need for your sample size
No. Of ppts which make up the proportion are chosen using random sampling

46
Q

Equations to calculate stratified sampling

A

If scenario gives percentage:
Sample size wanted / 100 x the percentage size of sub group

If scenario doesn’t give percentage
Sample size wanted / target population x sub group size

47
Q

AO3 for stratified sampling

A

Most representative as it accurately reflects the makeup of the target population (context) in the correct population so findings can be generalised to the target population.

Very time consuming because it takes time working out the proportions of ppts needed (context) and it is not guaranteed participants would consent to take part

48
Q

What is opportunity sample and how

A

Being there at that moment in time – for example waiting for participants in the canteen during period 3 and asking the first 30 ppts who walk past to participate.

How?
Go somewhere we you will have access to the population you want to study and ask the first 30 ppts who are there at that moment in time if they will take part

49
Q

A03 for opportunity sample

A

Very quick and easy and less money is required as you choose who is available at the time for your sample (context) unlike random sampling which takes a long time to identify everyone in the target population and make a list of all names.

May not be representative of the target population, those picked by an opportunity sample are present in the same place at the same time, doing similar things, (context) therefore they may have similar personalities, making it difficult to generalise findings to the wider population.

50
Q

What is a volunteer sample and how

A

This is ‘self selected’ method where people volunteer themselves to be participants, E.g. placing an advert for participants then waiting for the first 30 replies.

How?
Place an advert where people in the target population will see it and wait for the first 30 people to reply.

51
Q

AO3 for volunteer sampling

A

Very quick, easy and cheap to conduct as all that is required is to put an advert for the study in a place the target population may be (context) and wait for replies unlike random sampling which takes time to place names into a hat and give the population an equal chance of being picked.

The sample maybe bias/not representative as only a certain type of personality (extrovert/curious/ more likely to please the researcher) will volunteer (context) therefore difficult to generalise to the target population.

52
Q

What does reliability mean

A

Ability to repeat a study in similar conditions to gain consistent results

53
Q

What are the ways in which we can assess reliability

A

Test re-test:
-participants are given a task to complete (context). -The same Ppts are then given the same task after a time delay e.g. two weeks.
-Correlate the results using a stats test.
-Strong positive correlation of 8.8 shows high reliability

Operationalise:
If variables are clear and specific another researcher could repeat the study in the same conditions to check for consistent results.

54
Q

What are the types of validity how do we asses internal validity

A

Internal validity-
Asses using face validity and concurrent validity

External validity-
Temporal validity
Ecological validity
Population validity

55
Q

Name and define the types of external validity

A

Ecological validity - the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the setting of the study to other real life settings

Population validity - the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond sample studied to the target population

Temporal validity - the extent to which the findings remain true over time and can be generalised to other time periods

56
Q

How do we assess internal validity

A

Face validity -
Independent psychologist in the same field looks as experimental condition to see if they look like they measure what they intend to measure at first sight. If the researcher says ‘yes’ then the research is said to have face validity

Concurrent validity -
Compare results of new test with results from another similar test which has already been established for its validity using a stats test. If results from both tests are similar then we can assume the test is valid. Correlation of two results gained should exceed 0.8

57
Q

How do you improve validity

A

Use a control group
Standardised procedure
Single and double blind
Guaranteed anonymity

58
Q

What is meant by a pilot study (2)

A

A pilot study is a small scale trial run of the research before the real main scale research takes place to identify and problems and amend them

59
Q

What are the aims of a pilot study

A

Check standardised procedure and general design
Enough Time and task clear and do-able
Make sure questions are clear
Observations - check coding systems
Extraneous variables
Ppts experiences

Saves time and money

60
Q

What are the ethical issues

A

Deception
Informed consent
Protection of participants
Confidentiality

61
Q

How to deal with deception

A

Debrief - a post research interview where the Ppt is told the true aims of the research and full details of the study are given e.g. knowledge of any other experimental groups.

Ppts should also be given the right to withdraw their data from publication.

Ppts must be reminded that their behaviour is typical/normal of the general public, and in extreme cases if ppts feel embarrassed or stressed as a result of the procedures used in the research, they should be offered counselling.

62
Q

How to deal with informed consent

A

Participants should be given a consent form detailing the true nature and aims of the study.
A child under 16 cannot give their consent. There are other ways to gain consent - the 3 P’s
1. Presumptive consent - this is gaining consent from a similar set of ppts who won’t actually be doing the study.
2. Prior informed consent – getting general consent from ppts of things that ‘could’ happen.
3. Parental consent – when ppts are too young to give consent this is gained from parents. (under 16)
If consent wasn’t gained from the Ppts in the study a debrief should be given and Ppts can give retrospective consent. Ppts may wish to withdraw their data if they do not consent

63
Q

How to deal with protection from harm

A

Right to withdraw - Ppts should be offered the right to withdraw at any point during or after the research has taken place.
Debrief - reassure the Ppts that their behaviour is normal - offer counselling to all Ppts

64
Q

How to deal with confidentiality

A

Anonymity - All personal should be kept anonymous e.g. use of numbers, initials or fake names.

Psychology All Papers Revision (9 decks)

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