Approches

Question 1

Define the term science

Answer 1

Gaining knowledge through the use of objective (factual) investigation

Question 2

What does DREAMS stand for

Answer 2

Determinism vs free will - how much control we have over out behaviour according to this approach

Reductionism vs holism - is behaviour explained solely by simple basic units?

Evidence - research to support

Applications and alternative explanations

Methodology - which research methods used

Scientific methods - features of science

Question 3

What are the key approaches in psychology

Answer 3

Learning approach: behaviourism and social learning theory

Cognitive approach

Psychodynamic approach

Humanistic approach

Biological approach (including evolutionary approach)

Question 4

What is Wundt’s role in the development of psychology as a science

Answer 4

1) Wundt is knows as the ‘father of psychology’
2) set up the first psychology lab
3) published one of the first books on psychology
4) He used controlled observations to establish general theories about mental processes
5) Used scientific methods to study structure of sensation, perception using introspection
6) focussed on present experiences

Question 5

AO3 for Wundt

Answer 5

Wundt can be praised for moving psychology away from its philosophical roots. He used controlled observations with a standardised procedure to study thoughts, feelings and sensations, such as using the same stimulus every time (ticking metronome) and giving the participants the same standardised instruction. This therefore increased the ability to replicate the pieces of research and increased psychology’s status and its emergence as a science.

However, although the research was replicable it was not reliable. This is because introspection focuses on a participants subjective experience and therefore findings varied greatly from person to person, making it difficult to establish consistent general principles of human behaviour. Behaviourist psychologists such as Watson believed psychology should only study behaviour that could be observed and measured scientifically. As a result of this, the behaviourist approach was born which used more empirical and objective methods, such as carefully controlled lab experiments, to study human behaviour, increasing the scientific status of psychology as a subject.

Or unscientific

Question 6

Describe introspection

Answer 6

Introspection focuses on present experiences
An individuals conscious experiences are systematically analysed
The individual would focus on an object whilst listening to a stimulus such as a ticking metronome and look inwards noticing sensations, feelings and images
Analysis is broken into components, thoughts, images , sensation

Question 7

What are the assumptions for the psychodynamic approach

Answer 7

1) behaviour is due to unconscious motives
2) it focuses on past experiences
3) understanding of ourselves is distorted by defence mechanisms

Question 8

Name the features of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 8

Feature one: role of the unconscious
Feature two: structure of the personality
Feature three: defence mechanisms
Feature four: psychosexual stages

Question 9

What is the role of the unconscious

Answer 9

Psychodynamic approach
Split into the conscious, preconscious, unconscious

Conscious - the part of the mind that we know about and aware of
Preconscious - the part of the mind that is just below the conscious mind and includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of during dreams or slip of the tongue
Unconscious - the part of the mind that we are unaware of- biological drives and instincts and threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten but continue to drive our behaviour

Question 10

What is the structure of personality

Answer 10

Psychodynamic approach
Personality is made up of three parts, the id, the ego and the superego

1) The id is the pleasure principle
2) The id is the unconscious part of the mind
3) Only id is present at birth
4) Throughout life its focus is on self (selfish) and expects immediate gratification
5) If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce a selfish personality

1) The ego is the reality principle
2) The rational and conscious part of the mind that forms from 18 months to 3 years
3) Balances the demands to reduce conflict between the id and superego by using defence mechanisms

1) The superego is the morality principle
2) It forms between 3-6 years
3) Arises through identification with same sex parent
4) It is our internalised sense of right or wrong based on parental values
5) If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce an anxious personality or feelings of guilt.

Question 11

Defence mechanisms

Answer 11

Describe what is meant by the term defence mechanisms:

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between id and superego.(1) For example repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. (1)

Role of / why we have defence mechanisms:
The ego has a difficult job reducing the conflicts between id and superego so it uses the defence mechanisms
These are unconscious and stop the ego from becoming overwhelmed with the conflicts.
Defence mechanisms can distort a persons reality. Not a long term solution. Can affect behaviour

1) Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind to the unconscious (forgetting the trauma of you pet dying)
2) Denial - refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant aspect of reality (showing up to work after being fired)
3) Displacement - transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a less threatening substitute target (slamming the door after arguing with your mum)

Question 12

What is psychosexual stages

Answer 12

Feature of Psychodynamic approach
Freud suggests we are born with an id that as innate sex energy that wants satisfaction
There are 5 developmental stages known as psychosexual stages to explain how the id gets sexual satisfaction from birth
The child must resolve conflict at each stage before they can progress to the next stage. If they do not resolve the conflict they become fixated which can lead to certain behaviours in adulthood.

Oral (0-1 years)
Description: gratification gained through the mouth such as dummies, thumb sucking and mothers breast
Consequence of unresolved conflict: oral fixation- smoking, nail biting, sarcastic and critical

Anal (1-3 years)
Description: gratification for the id gained from the anus such as expulsion/ forcing or withholding of pooing
Consequence of unresolved conflict: anal retentive personality - perfectionist, obsessive OR anal expulsive personality - thoughtless, messy

Phallic (3-5 years)
Description: gratification from the id is gained from exploring their own genitals - identify with same sex parent
Consequence of unresolved conflict: phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, problems with authority

Latency (6-12 years)
Description: earlier conflicts are repressed

Genital (12 years)
Description: Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty
Consequence of unresolved conflict: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 13

AO3 for psychodynamic approach

Answer 13

The psychosexual stage can be criticised for psychic determinism. This is because the feature suggests than at individual is controlled by external and internal factors such as fixations occurring during specific stages that inevitably cause behaviour, such as oral fixations resulting in behaviour such as smoking. Therefore, it neglects the role of free will and choice that individuals have and it could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour. Limiting the appropriateness of using the psychosexual stages to explain human behaviour and development.

A strength of the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind has led to the treatment of psychoanalysis, which is used to treat abnormalities in the real world, such as depression and anxiety by dealing with conflicts hidden in the unconscious. Therefore, the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology.

A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is that it does not use scientific methods ans therefore lacks scientific rigour. This is because the concepts such as the unconscious and the Id, ego, superego are abstract concepts, which cannot be objectively and empirically tested and falsified. Therefore, it could be argued that this decreases the overall internal validity of the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour, therefore reducing Psychology’s scientific status

Question 14

Assumptions of the humanistic approach

Answer 14

1) all humans can determine their own behaviour and free will
2) all humans have an innate need for self actualisation and achieve this provided they have the right environment for this growth
3) each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious instincts
4) a persons subjective experience and understanding of the world is greater importance to understanding the person than objective reality

Question 15

What are the features of the humanistic approach

Answer 15

Feature one: free will
Feature two: self actualisation
Feature three: the self, conditions of worth, congruence

Question 16

What is free will as a feature

Answer 16

It is a feature of the humanistic approach

1) Argues free will is possible
2) humans are self determining so our behaviour is due to our choices NOT internal and external influences e.g. genes, unconscious motives
3) make choices to enable personal change and growth free to chose how we act

Due to this humanistic psychology are concerned with the subjective experience of individuals and rather than general laws gained through scientific methods

Question 17

What is self actualisation

Answer 17

Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs
It contains the range of needs that a person requires for survival and growth
The more basic needs have to be met before higher needs can be achieved

The most basic needs are physiological needs that are required for survival e.g. food, water and sleep
Safety needs include having home, security, job, good health
Love and belongings linked to giving and receiving acceptance and love
Esteem needs include seeking respect, achievement and self confidence
Self actualisation is the highest level and is not a need we seek because something we are lacking but for personal growth. We aim to fulfil our potential and this will continue to change throughout our lives.

Question 18

What is the ‘self, conditions of worth and congruence’

Answer 18

Feature of the humanistic approach

The self:
Split into Actual/perceived self and the ideas self

1) Actual self is the way we view ourselves in terms of what we are and what we can do. This concept comes from our own experiences of the world and through how other significant people view us and how they treat us
2) ideal self refers to the person we feel that we should be our the person we want to be

Congruence:
1) This occurs when there is a match between the perceived self and the ideal self
2) if this occurs it enables the person to show personal growth and achieve their goals

Incongruence:
1) There is a mismatch between the perceived self and the ideal self
2) more likely to have low self-worth and poorer psychological health
3) suggested that these individuals should go through counselling to CLOSE THE GAP and develop a more realistic and healthy view of themselves

Conditions of worth:
1) in childhood, parents or significant others may place limits on their love (only show love if specific conditions are met)
2) these influence a person as they believe they can only accept themselves or be happy when they reach these expectations set by others.

Question 19

Outline the influence of humanistic psychology on counselling

Answer 19

1) Rogers PCT (person centred therapy) is an important part of modern day counselling
2) His work has transformed therapy by introducing a variety of techniques
3) PCT is NON-DIRECTIVE, and the client is encouraged to exert free will and discover solutions to their own problems
4) Rogers PCT has been praised as a forward-looking therapy as it focuses on PRESENT problems rather than dwelling on the past like psychoanalysis
5) The aim of PCT is to increase the person’s feeling of self worth, think more positively and reduce the incongruence (close the gap) between the actual self and ideal self. To help them become a more fully functioning person
6) Rogers emphasised the important of creating a warm, supportive, non judgemental atmosphere (unconditional positive regard) where the individual can achieve personal growth and congruence.
7) The therapist must show genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.

Question 20

AO3 for humanistic approach

Answer 20

A strength of humanistic psychology is that it takes a holistic approach to explaining behaviour. It takes into account how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain their behaviour. Whereas reductionist approaches such as behaviourism argue that human behaviour is just a consequence of stimulus response associations. Therefore, humanism is seen as a more valid way of understanding human behaviour in a real life context than the more reductionist alternative explanations

A strength of the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that individuals have the free will to choose their behaviour has revolutionised counselling techniques and has led to the treatment of Person-Centred Therapy. PCT effectively treats abnormalities in the real world, such as depression by helping them to achieve congruence and self-actualise. Therefore, the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.

A limitation of the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is that it does not use scientific methods. This is because the concepts such as the self-actualisation and congruence are abstract concepts, which cannot be objectively and empirically tested and falsified. Therefore, it could be argued that this decreases the overall internal validity of the humanistic explanation of human behaviour, therefore reducing Psychology’s scientific status.

Question 21

Assumptions of the social learning theory

Answer 21

1) SLT suggests learning is through observing a model and imitating them
2) it considers cognitive factors involved in learning behaviour (free will to chose who we want to imitate)
3)that we learn behaviour directly through being rewarded or punished or indirectly through seeing others rewarded

Question 22

What are the features of social learning theory

Answer 22

Feature one: Observational learning
Feature two: The four meditational processes

Question 23

What is observational learning

Answer 23

Feature of the social learning theory

1) Identification is where an individual associates himself with a role model due to similarity status and wants to be like the role model. Makes person more likely to imitate these behaviours
2) Imitation is the term used to describe when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it
3) vicarious reinforcement is when a person sees a role model rewarded for a particular behaviour then it increases the chance that the observer will imitate the same behaviour to receive the same reward.

This lead to…

4) Modelling: the process of imitating a behaviour of a role model. From the role models view, they are showing the observer a specific behaviour to be imitated

Question 24

What is the four meditational processes (ARRM)

Answer 24

Bandura states observational learning involves four cognitive processes

1) Attention - learning occurs when they attend to a models behaviour and observe what the model is doing or saying in order to reproduce the models behaviour. Attention must be captured

2) Retention - they store the memory of this behaviour in the LTM allowing it to be remembered. More likely if behaviour is easy to store / is memorable and is observed repeatedly

3) Reproduction - individuals must have the skills and capabilities to be confident they can reproduce the models behaviour. More likely if behaviour is easy to replicate.

4) Motivation - may be motivated to imitate the behaviour because they have seen someone else being rewarded for the behaviour (vicarious reinforcement) or because they identify with the model.

Question 25

Outline Bandura’s research

Answer 25

Aim: To see whether aggressive behaviour could be learned through observation

Sample: 36 boys and 36 girls (3-5 years)

Procedure: Controlled environment. Children were divided into two conditions. In the non aggressive condition the children observed the model assemble toys quietly ignoring bobo doll. In the aggressive condition, children observed the model acting aggressively towards the bobo doll. By hitting it on the head with a mallet , or punching it in the nose or verbally shouting aggressive phrases “sock him in the nose”

Findings: children in aggressive condition had significantly higher physical and verbal aggression scores than non aggressive or control groups
70% of non aggressive children condition or control had zero rating in aggression
Both genders more influenced by male model
Boys more aggressive than girls

Conclusion: observation of behaviour can lead to imitative learning. People are more likely to imitate male aggressive models as physical aggression is perceived more as male appropriate behaviour

Question 26

AO3 for social learning theory

Answer 26

Bandura conducted research to support the Social Learning Theory in psychology. Bandura found that when children observed a model acting aggressively towards a Bobo Doll they were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour. Whereas, 70% of the children who observed a non-aggressive model or no model showed zero ratings of aggression. Therefore evidencing how observation of behaviour can lead to imitative learning and the importance of a role model as the Social Learning Theory suggests.

A strength of the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour is that it uses scientific methods. This is because it is based on objective and empirical techniques such as Bandura’s Bobo Doll lab experiment, which had high control over extraneous variables (using the same model in each condition). Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour, therefore raising Psychology’s scientific status.

A strength of the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by observing and imitating a model, which has been used by the government to control how the media portray certain behaviours e.g. restricted the advertisement of cigarettes and alcohol in order to reduce this negative behaviour. Therefore, the Social Learning Theory explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to promote positive behaviours in the real world.

Question 27

Assumptions of behaviorism

Answer 27

1) Humans are born as a blank slate
2) all behaviour is learnt from the environment and therefore can be unlearnt
3) our behaviour is all due to learning so free will is not possible

Question 28

Background context for the behaviourist approach

Answer 28

Behaviourists were only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
Watson rejected introspection claiming it was too subjective and not measureable
Therefore behaviourists rely on lab experiments as these are a better way of maintaining control and objectively measuring behaviour
Behaviourists believe that animals can replace humans in research because they learn in the same was as humans

Question 29

What are the features for behaviourism

Answer 29

Feature one: classical conditioning (pavlovs research)
Feature two: operant conditioning

Question 30

Classical conditioning

Answer 30

Pavlov explained how behaviour is learnt through stimulus response and association
Learning a stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response
If pairing is repeated then the individual will learn to associate the neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus
Therefore neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus which creates the conditioned response