Addiction

Question 1

what is meant by the term risk factor

Answer 1

A risk factor is anything internal or external that increases the likelihood of an individual starting to use drugs or engage in addictive behaviour.

Question 2

what are the five risk factors

Answer 2

1) Genetic vulnerability
2) Stress
3) Personality
4) Family influences
5) peers

Question 3

Genetic vulnerability

Answer 3

There are two reasons genetic vulnerability can occur:

1) D2 RECEPTOR:
- Within the brain we have a number of receptors that communicate with neurotransmitters.
- The D2 receptor is responsible for communicating with Dopamine (neurotransmitter) – low levels of these receptors are associated with addiction.
- An individual with LOW LEVELS of D2 receptors will not experience the same amount of pleasure from a substance for example, chocolate, as someone with the regular number of D2 receptors therefore, they turn to more addictive substances such as nicotine to experience the same feeling of pleasure.
- The levels of receptors that an individual has is ultimately determined by their genetics

2) METABOLISM:
- Some individuals are able to metabolise (break down) certain addictive substances a lot faster than others, therefore making it easier for them to become addicted as they may need more to have the same effects.
- An individual’s rate of metabolism is inherited through their genes.

Question 4

AO3 for genetic vulnerability

Answer 4

Moreover, the research into genetic vulnerability as a rick factor into addiction is often based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as genetics and addiction, but it often does not show which came first. For example, it could be that addiction causes abnormalities in D2 receptors. Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction.

Research to support genetic vulnerability as a risk factor in addiction was conducted by Kendler et al using data from the national Swedish adoption study. they looked at adults who has been adopted as children, from biological families in which at least one person had an addiction. these children later had a significantly greater risk of developing and addiction themselves, compared to adopted individuals with no addicted parent in their biological families. This gives validity to genetic vulnerability as a risk factor in addiction.

Question 5

Stress AO1

Answer 5

• People who experience stress may turn to addictive substances or behaviors as a form of self medication for stress ( to avoid pain or to cope).
• Periods of chronic, long lasting stress and traumatic life events in
  childhood have been linked with increased risk of developing an addiction.

Question 6

Stress AO3

Answer 6

Moreover, the research into stress as a risk factor into addiction is often based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as stress and addiction, but it often does not show which came first. For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to become stressed (through loss of money, lack of sleep) rather than stress (actual or perceived ability to cope)causing addiction. Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction.

Question 7

Personality AO1

Answer 7

• A correlation between certain traits and addiction.
• High levels of neuroticism = High levels of anxiety, irritability, and low self-efficacy
• High levels of psychoticism = aggressive and sometimes emotionally detached
  Individuals who have these pathological personalities are more likely to become addicts as the behaviour/substance helps them and offers them relief.

Question 8

Personality AO3

Answer 8

A strength of the personality as a risk factor in addictive behaviour comes from supporting research. Eysenck and gossop assessed the personality of a sample of 221 drug addicts and 310 non addicts using Eysenck’s personality questionnaire. They found evidence of high psychoticism and neuroticism scores in the addicted ppts compared to non addicts. therefore this supports the role of neuroticism and psychoticism personality traits as a risk factor in addictive behaviour giving validity to this risk factor.

However research into personality as a risk factor into addiction is often based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as personality and addiction, but it often does not show which came first. For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to show traits such as anxiety, irritability and impulsivity rather than these traits causing addiction.. Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction.

Question 9

family influences AO1

Answer 9

Family members can have an effect on an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour’s over the course of their development.

1) perceived parental approval. This is the extent to which adolescent believes that his or her parents have positive attitudes towards a specific
behaviour/substance. If an adolescents believes their parents show positive attitudes towards a particular addictive substance/behaviour, then they will be more vulnerable to developing the addiction themselves.

2) Also adolescents who believe that their parents have little interest in monitoring their behaviour (e.g. internet use, peer relations) are significantly more likely to develop an addiction.

3) Also, exposure within family life to a substance/behaviour creates risk of developing an addiction. For example, adolescents are more likely to start using alcohol in families where it is an everyday feature of family life.

4) Also, Social Learning Theory could play a role. An individual could observe a family member (role model) engaging in addictive behaviour and imitate this behaviour as they identify with them and want to be like them.

Question 10

family influences AO3

Answer 10

Research to support family influences as a risk factor for addiction comes from madras et al. she studied families, with adolescents, where the parents used cannabis. she found a strong positive correlation between the parents use of cannabis and the adolescents use of cannabis, nicotine. this may show that the adolescents perceived that the parents were accepting of drug use so went on to use drugs themselves. it may also be because the adolescents observed their parents using cannabis and modelled this behaviour. Therefore this supports family influences as a risk factor for addiction

Question 11

Peers AO1

Answer 11

• Peers can influence an individual’s development during adolescence as they spend more time with them, and less with their family.
• Social Learning theory can explain addiction - observe their peers (role models) engaging in an addictive behaviour and imitate this behaviour as they identify with them due to similarity and want to be like their peers.

At risk of developing addiction due to:
1. Attitudes and Norms to drinking alcohol – These can be influenced by
groups of peers who drink alcohol.
2. Opportunities to drink alcohol – The more experienced the peers are in
drinking, the more opportunities to drink alcohol they can provide an
individual with.
3. Individual’s perception - An individual may over-estimate how much
their peers drink, and therefore drink more to ‘keep up with them’.

Question 12

Peers AO3

Answer 12

A limitation into peers as a risk factor into addiction is often based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as peers and addiction, but it often does not show which came first. For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to seek out peers who also share the same addictive behaviours/interests e.g. drugs/alcohol misuse rather than their peers norms making them engage in addictive behaviour. Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction.

Question 13

Overall AO3 for risk factors

Answer 13

P: (Name) as a risk factor in the development of addiction has led to practical applications.
E: this is because the principle that (name and explain risk factor AO1) makes someone more at risk of addiction can be used for prevention strategies for addictive behaviours.
E: for example:
GENETICS: identifying those with a genetic vulnerability may indicate who is at risk of addiction and could be used to develop individualised intervention programs.
STRESS: interventions to help people manage and cope with stress
PERSONALITY: identifying those with a personality disorder may indicate who is at risk of addiction and could be used to develop individualised intervention programs.
FAMILY: Greater levels of parental monitoring to reduce the likelihood of addiction.
PEERS: social norms marketing advertising uses mass media to advertise how much young people really drink so it is not seen as the ‘norm’.
L: therefore, awareness of the risk factors in the development of addiction is an important part of applied psychology.

can use risk factors as alternative factors affecting the development of an addiction. not a sole explanation.

Question 14

Explanation for nicotine addiction

Answer 14

Brain neurochemistry is an internal explanation for nicotine addiction. it states that a nicotine addiction is formed due to the repeated activation of the brains reward pathway.
In the limbic system:
1) Nicotine is first inhaled and activates the nACh receptors in less than 10 seconds
2) nicotine indirectly stimulates the neurons in the ventral tegmental area. this stimulates and releases dopamine.
3) Dopamine activity is increased and released in to the mesolimbic pathway - nucleus accumbens
4) This leads to euphoria, increased alertness and motivation to perform the behaviour again
5) This activity releases more dopamine down the mescortical pathway to the frontal cortex.
6) The pre frontal cortex is responsible for decision making and therefore, makes the decision to keep performing the behaviour to get the same reward.

Question 15

AO3 for Brain neurochemistry explanation of explaining nicotine addiction

Answer 15

Research to support Brian neurochemistry and the role of dopamine was conducted by McEvoy. They studied smoking behaviour in people with schizophrenia who were taking a drug. This drug is a dopamine antagonist by blocking dopamine receptors - lowering the level of dopamine activity in the brain. It was found that the people taking the drug showed a significant increase in smoking. Therefore, supporting the role of dopamine as an explanation of addiction to nicotine, as the patients sought nicotine in order to increase their level of dopamine in the brain and experience euphoria.

However, this research can be criticised for sample bias as it uses ppts who have schizophrenia. They may not be neurotypical and therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings on low dopamine activity and smoking behaviour to the target population of smokers without schizophrenia. Therefore limiting how far this study can be used to support the role of dopamine in smoking.

Moreover, Brain neurochemistry as an explanation of nicotine addiction can be criticised for biological reductionism. This is because the theory reduces the complex human behaviour of nicotine addiction down to dopamine levels within the brain. This neglect a holistic approach, which takes into account how a person’s cultural and social context would influence and explain an individuals nicotine addiction for example adolescents may develop a nicotine addiction due to wanting to fit in with a particular group, rather than the feeling of euphoria. Therefore the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction may lack validity as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.

The brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that nicotine addiction is caused by high levels of dopamine and an activation of the brain’s reward pathway has led to the treamtnet of nicotine relplacement therapy (NRT). This is effective in reducing nicotine addiction by providing the individual with nicotine in a less harmful form (patch instead of a cigarette) and slowly reducing the dosage overtime, thus reducing the tolerance. Therefore, the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction is an important part of applied psychology when helping to treat nicotine addiction in the real world.

Question 16

What is cognitive bias

Answer 16

This is where a person’s thinking, memory and attentional processes are faulty leading an individual to make irrational judgements and poor decisions.

These biases influence how gambles think about their behaviour, what they pay attention to, and what they remember and what they forgot

Question 17

What are the four different categories that we can classify cognitive biases into

Answer 17

1. Faulty beliefs of skills and judgement
2. Engaging in personal traits / ritual behaviours
3. Selective recall
4. Faulty perceptions

Question 18

Explain and give an example of ‘faulty beliefs of skills and judgement’

Answer 18

• gambling addicts have an illusion of control
• they overestimate their ability to influence a random event

Example:
They believe they are skilled at choosing lottery numbers, making them more likely to gamble

Question 19

Explain and give an example of ‘engaging in personal traits/ ritual behaviour’

Answer 19

• gamblers believe they have a greater chance of winning over other people because they are LUCKY or have engaged in superstitious behaviour

Example:
Touching a certain item of clothing before placing a bet makes them more likely to win

Question 20

Explain and give examples of ‘selective recall’

Answer 20

• gamblers remember certain types of information better than others

Example:
They are more likely to recall their wins but forget their losses describing them as unexplainable mysteries. Making them more likely to gamble

Question 21

Explain and give an example of ‘faulty perceptions’

Answer 21

• gamblers have distorted views about the operation of chance

Example:
They believe a losing streak cannot last and will always be ended with a win making them more likely to gamble

Question 22

What is self efficacy

Answer 22

• refers to an individuals perceived ability to control their own behaviour
• addicts with low self efficacy (low control over their own behaviour) believe they cannot give up gambling as it will always be ‘a part of them’
• this leads to self fulfilling prophecy in which they gamble because their belief is that they cannot stop themselves.
• causing their gambling addiction to be reinforced.

Question 23

AO3 for cognitive theory of gambling addiction

Answer 23

Research to support the cognitive explanation of gambling addiction comes from Griffiths (1994) who carried out a natural experiment on a sample of 30 regular gamblers comparing them to a control group of 30 occasional gamblers. They played on a fruit machine and were asked to ‘think aloud’ and verbalise their thought processes whilst playing and were interviewed after. They found that regular gamblers saw themselves as ‘skilful’ at the fruit machine, made more irrational statements compared to occasional gamblers and were more likely to explain losses as ‘near wins’ this supports the cognitive explanation of gambling because it demonstrates the faulty thought processes and control that gamblers believe they have over a random event.

However, the use of ‘thinking aloud’ research has been questioned. This self report method is used in a lot of studies in to the cognitive explanation of gambling. Some psychologists believe that what people say in gambling situations does not necessarily represent what they really think. ‘Off the cuff’ remarks made whilst gambling ay not reflect an addicts deeply-held beliefs about chance and skill. Therefore researchers may get misleading impression that gamblers thought processes are irrational when in fact they are not. Limiting the validity of the research used to support the cognitive explanation of gambling.

However, a strength of the cognitive theory as an explanation of gambling addiction has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by cognitive biases and faulty thought processes has led to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy. This is effective in treating behaviour by identifying and challenging irrational and faulty thought processes that have lead an individual to gamble and change them into rational and logical thought processes via disputing. Therefore, the cognitive explanation of gambling is an important part of applied psychology as it helps people overcome their gambling addiction in the real world.