IV DV Hypothesis/Experimental Methods & Designs/Pilot Studies/Validity/choosing and Interpreting Statistical test/ Type one and two errors/graphs/peer review/reporting psych investigations

Question 1

Define IV

Answer 1

This is the variable that changes OR is manipulated (by the researcher) to see if it has an EFFECT on the DV. (1 mark)

Question 2

Define DV

Answer 2

This is the variable that the researcher measures. To see the effect of the IV. (1 mark)

Question 3

Hypothesis

Answer 3

This is a specific, testable statement in which the researcher predicts what will happen between the variables.

Question 4

How does a DIRECTIONAL hypothesis start?

Answer 4

There will be a significantly higher…….

Question 5

How does a NON-DIRECTIONAL hypothesis start

Answer 5

There will be a significant difference……

Question 6

You use a directional hypothesis when….

Answer 6

There has been previous reaserch that states clearly the direction the results could follow

Question 7

When do you use a non directional hypothesis?

Answer 7

When there has been no previous research or if the previous research has mixed findings

Question 8

What are the different experimental methods

Answer 8

Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi

Question 9

Describe (AO1) the lab method

Answer 9

An experiment conducted in a lab which is a highly controlled environment (1).
where the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) and records (measures) the effect on the dependent variable (DV). (2)

Question 10

Describe the Field method (AO1)

Answer 10

An experiment which takes place in a natural environment such as an office or school (1) where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV (2).

Question 11

Define a natural experimental method (AO1)

Answer 11

The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV. This is a natural experiment because the variable would have changed even if the experimenter was not interested.

Question 12

Describe a quasi experimental method (AO1)

Answer 12

An experiment which has an IV based on an existing differences between people (1) which the researcher has not manipulated e.g. age or gender (1) and the researcher measures the effect on the DV.

Question 13

What is a strength of using a lab as an experimental method (AO3)

Answer 13

High level of control over extraneous variables as its carried out in a fake environment, therefore cause and effect can be established between the IV and the DV which increases the internal validity of the research.

High in reliability as the experiment can be easily repeated in the same conditions to check for consistent results.

Question 14

What are the limitations of using a lab as an experimental method (AO3)

Answer 14

Lacks Ecological validity as it’s carried out in a fake environment therefore it is difficult to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study, lowering the external validity.

Can encourage demand characteristics, where the Ppt’s change their natural behaviour based on clues given off by the researcher this could lead to ppts choosing to either help or hinder the researcher, reducing the internal validity.

Question 15

What are the strengths of using a field experiment (AO3)

Answer 15

Less prone to demand characteristics as people might not know they are being watched so they are less likely to guess clues given off by the researcher and change their natural behaviour. Therefore increasing the internal validity.

High ecological validity as it is based in a real life setting therefore it is easier to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study to other similar settings increasing the external validity.

Question 16

What are the limitations of using a field experiment (AO3)

Answer 16

Low in reliability as the environment is real so it is difficult to repeat with exactly the same conditions to check for consistent results.

This could create an ethical issue of lack of informed consent as people may not be aware they are being studied on so wouldn’t have given their consent. If they become aware they may become upset and wish to withdraw their data from the research.

Question 17

What are the strengths of using a natural experiment (AO3)

Answer 17

Natural experiments provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons. For example, Rutter’s study on Romanian orphans would have been unethical to manipulate unless the institutionalisation (IV) had not occurred naturally. Therefore, natural experiments contribute to a greater psychological understanding of behaviour.

High ecological validity as natural experiments are often based in a real life setting therefore it is easier to generalise the finings beyond the setting of the study to other similar settings increasing the external validi

Question 18

What are the limitations for natural experiment (AO3)

Answer 18

Naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely which limits opportunities for research, unlike lab experiments where IVs can be manipulated by the researcher any time. Suggesting other types of experiment may be more convenient for research than natural experiments.

Low control over extraneous variables as natural experiments usually take place in a natural environment. Therefore it is difficult to establish cause and effect between the IV and the DV lowering the internal validity of the study.

Question 19

Strengths of quasi experiment

Answer 19

REMEMBER –
QUASI CAN BE CONDUCTED IN A NATURAL OR CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT (Field or Lab). THEREFORE, DEPENDING ON THE SCENARIO, YOU WOULD HAVE TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE EVALUATION (STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES).

Question 20

Limitations of quasi experiment

Answer 20

Sample bias as the sample being studied may have unique characteristics, which may mean that it is difficult to generalise to the target population decreasing the external validity of the study.

Question 21

What is a good acronym to remember the different experimental methods

Answer 21

LIONS - LAB
FIGHT - FIELD
NOT - NATURAL
QUIT- QUASI

Question 22

What are the 3 different experimental designs?

Answer 22

Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs

Question 23

Describe independent groups design and how to conduct it

Answer 23

Ppts take part in one condition only. Each condition has different group of ppts.

1) Recruit a group of ppts
2) Split into equal sized groups
3) A different group allocated to each condition

Question 24

Describe repeated measures design and how to conduct it

Answer 24

All ppts take part in all conditions of experiment

1) Ppts complete one condition
2) After sufficient time delay they will complete other condition
3) The task should be different but matched on difficulty/measuring the same thing.

Question 25

Describe matched pairs design and how to conduct it

Answer 25

Ppts are matched on important characteristics e.g. age or IQ by giving them a test and matching the two ppts with same scores. Each member of pair randomly allocated to each condition.

1) Ppts matched on important characteristics
2) Ppts pre tested on this variable
3) Ppts are matched in to pairs with a person with the same score
4) Each member of pair randomly allocated to each condition.

Question 26

Advantages of using independent groups design (AO3)

Answer 26

There will be no order effects as ppts only take part in one condition so they will not get bored/fatigued or better at the task/have lasting effects from one condition to the next UNLIKE repeated measures design where ppts take part in all conditions and could have order effects.

Can be used when repeated measures design is inappropriate (e.g. quasi experiments when looking at gender differences) as each condition needs different Ppts.

Question 27

Disadvantages of using independent groups design (AO3)

Answer 27

Individual differences may affect the DV as there are separate groups of Ppts in each condition e.g. some Ppts could have a better memory which wouldn’t be suitable in a memory study lowering the internal validity UNLIKE repeated measures that uses the same group of indivudals in all conditions to reduce the effect of individual differences.

More Ppts are needed as two different groups are required for the different conditions UNLIKE repeated measures where you use less ppts as every ppt takes part in all conditions.

Question 28

Advantages of using repeated measures design (AO3)

Answer 28

Individual differences between participants in each condition are removed e.g. IQ as potential confounding variables, as the same Ppts take part in all conditions. Therefore, the researcher can be more sure that any changes in the DV are due to the IV and not any other variable increasing the internal validity of the research UNLIKE IGD that will use different ppts in different conditions so individual
differences could affect the DV.

Requires fewer participants as the same Ppts take part in all conditions UNLIKE in an independent measures design as separate groups are needed for separate conditions.

Question 29

Disadvantages of using repeated measures design (AO3)

Answer 29

Order effects may occur when participants take part in more than one experimental condition they may perform worse in the second condition (due to boredom or fatigue) or better in the second condition (due to practice), or there may be lasting effects from condition 1 to condtion 2 lowering the internal validity UNLIKE independent measures where ppts only take part in one condition so cannot be susceptible to order effects.

Increased chances of demand characteristics as participants take part in all conditions. They may pick up on clues given off by the researcher as they spend much more time with them, or from the research situation , and change their natural behaviour to help or hinder the research lowering the internal validity UNLIKE IGD where ppts are less likely to pick up on clues as they only take part in one condition of the research.

Question 30

Advantages of using matched pairs design (AO3)

Answer 30

Reduces individual differences between participants as it matches ppts on variables important to the reserach, such as IQ/age/happiness. Therefore,
the researcher can be more sure that
any changes in the DV are due to the IV
and not any other variable. UNLIKE in an independent measures where separate ppts are in separate conditions.

There will be no order effects as ppts only take part in one condition so they will not get bored/fatigued or better at the task/have lasting effects from one condition to the next UNLIKE repeated measures design where ppts take part in all conditions and could have order effect

Question 31

Disadvantages of using matched pairs design (AO3)

Answer 31

very time consuming to match up and find similar participants. The psychologists would need a very large pool of people UNLIKE repeated measures design where you use the same ppts in all conditions.

Individual differences cannot be fully eliminated. Psychologists match ppts on variables important for the research but are not able to match ppts on all variables. Therefore this could question the validity of the matched-pairs design. UNLIKE RM where each condition will use the same ppts therefore, indivudal differences will be eliminated.

Question 32

What is meant by a pilot study? (2 marks)

Answer 32

A pilot study is a small scale trial run of the research before the real main scale research (1st mark) takes place to identify any problems and AMEND them.(2nd mark)

Question 33

What are the aims/purpose of a pilot study? (3-4 marks)

Answer 33

1. Check standardised procedures and general design
2. Check the amount of time given to ppts is enough to complete the task
3. For questionnaire or interview to make sure the questions are clear
4. For observations check coding systems and behaviour categories are understood, check
   observer/camera in a good position to see behaviours.
5. Extraneous variables can be identified and possibly eliminated
6. Ask the ppts to discuss their experiences of the experiment
7. ANY PROBLEMS CAN BE IDENTIFIED AND ADJUSTED BEFORE THE MAIN STUDY

Question 34

What are the two ways to assess internal validity

Answer 34

Face validity
Concurrent validity

Question 35

What are the types of EXTERNAL validity we can have

Answer 35

Population validity
Ecological validity
Temporal validity

Question 36

Define ecological validity

Answer 36

A form of external validity. The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the setting of the study to other real life settings

Question 37

Define population validity

Answer 37

A form of external validity. The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the sample studied to the target population

Question 38

Define temporal validity

Answer 38

A form of external validity. The extent to which findings remain true over time and can be generalised to other time periods.

Question 39

How do you assess validity using face validity?

Answer 39

An independent psychologist in the same field looks at the experimental conditions to see if they look like they measure what they intend to measure. If the researcher says ‘yes’ then the research is said to have face validity.

Question 40

How do you assess validity using concurrent validity?

Answer 40

By comparing the results of the new test with the results from another similar test which has already been established for its validity, using a stats test. If results from both tests are similar then we can assume the test is valid. The correlation of the two results gained from an appropriate stats test should exceed +.8.

Question 41

Explain how the researcher could improve the validity of his experiment (3 marks)

Answer 41

1) Use of a control group to assess that the IV has affected the DV (establishing cause & effect).

2) Standardised procedures/instructions to reduce investigator effects.

3) The use of single blind procedures to reduce demand characteristics & double blind procedures to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.

Question 42

What is the rhyme to help you remember the stats table

Answer 42

NO RIC Students Come College When Miss Says Ric U Part-timer

Question 43

If asked to identify or justify the stats test you must reference to what three things…

Answer 43

1) Test of difference or correlation
2) Experimental design
3) Level of measurement

Question 44

What is the writing frame for ‘what is the most appropriate statistical test’

Answer 44

The appropriate statistical test is ________________________ This is because the study is a test of difference/association between ________________ and _______________________ (*They used an _______________ experimental design why – link to scenario) and the level of measurement (data) is _______________ because (link to scenario).
* Only use if it is a test of difference

Question 45

When interpreting stats tests what do you have to identify to decide whether your results are significant or not

Answer 45

1. One or two tailed research hypothesis?
2. Number of participants (N=) in a chi-square it is degrees of freedom (df)
3. Level of significance (if it doesn’t state the p-value assume it is less than 5%)
4. Identify the observed/calculated value (in the text)
5. Identify the critical value (in the table)
6. Interpret the findings using the statement under the critical value table

Question 46

What is the writing frame for ‘are the results significant’ (interpreting stats tests to check for significance)

Answer 46

The critical value is _____ due to the P value being _____, a ___-tailed hypothesis and ____ppts/ df = ___ .
As a ___________ was used the calculated/observed Value (_____) must be _______ than the CV (____) to be significant. In this case it _______. Therefore, the results are ____________ and we reject the _________ hypothesis and accept the __________.
So, there is/no significant difference/association between ___________________________

Question 47

Define what is meant by a type 1 error? (2 marks)

Answer 47

Type I error is when the researcher has used a lenient P value. The researcher thinks the results are significant when they are actually due to chance/error. So they wrongly accept alternative/experimental hypothesis and wrongly reject the null.

Question 48

Define what is meant by a Type II Error [2 Marks]

Answer 48

Type II error is when the researcher has used a stringent p value. They think that their results are not significant (due to chance/error) when they could be significant. So they wrongly accept the null hypothesis and wrongly reject the alternate/experimental.

Question 49

Why do psychologists use the 5% significance level?

Answer 49

Psychologists use a P<005 as it strikes a balance between the risk of making the type 1 and 2 error.

Question 50

How do you check for a type 1 error?

Answer 50

Compare the calculated/observed value to a more stringent p value. If the results are still significant then the researcher has not made a type 1 error. If the results are now not significant, then there is a chance of a type 1 error.

Question 51

How do you check for a type II error?

Answer 51

Compare the calculated/observed value to a more lenient p value (p0.05). If the results are still not significant then the researcher has not made a type 2 error. If the results are now significant, then there is a chance of a type 2 error.

Question 52

Bar charts

Answer 52

~Used to display NOMINAL/ORDINAL (DISCRETE) data.
~Used to compare conditions.
~THE BARS NEVER TOUCH.

Question 53

Histograms

Answer 53

~ Used to display INTERVAL (CONTINUOUS) data.
~ Shows data within conditions
~ THE BAR SHOULD ALWAYS BE TOUCHING

Question 54

Scattergraph

Answer 54

~ Used to display a RELATIONSHIP between two co-variables
~ You plot correlations on these
~ Remember – each X represents a pp

Question 55

What is meant by the term peer review? (2 marks)

Answer 55

The process by which psychological research is subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists in the same field before the research has been published. The reviewer considers the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality.

Question 56

What is a brief purpose of peer review?

Answer 56

Peer review acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ to filter out flawed or unscientific research

Question 57

Process of peer review

Answer 57

1) Before publication, the research is subjected to independent scrutiny by another psychologist from the same field of research
2) They consider the validity, significance and originality of the research and see whether it benefits the society or not
3) They also assess the appropriateness of the method and designs used
4) the reviewer can then accept the research, accept the research if improvements are made or reject the research.

Question 58

Purpose in the scientific process of a peer review

Answer 58

1) To ensure quality and relevance of the research. It is difficult for authors and researchers to spot every mistake in a piece of work. Showing the work to others increases the likelihood that weaknesses will be addressed
2) ensures that published research can be taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinised by fellow researchers
3) helps to prevent dissemination (spread) of irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, fraud
4) determines whether research should receive funding

Question 59

Once research has been published it allows theories to….

Answer 59

…be accepted and modify if necessary

Question 60

What is economy?

Answer 60

The money going in and out of the country

Question 61

Implications of psychological research can either benefit the economy…..

Answer 61

…in a positive way
OR
…in a negative way

Question 62

A High SD tells us…

Answer 62

That the mean scores are more spread around the mean so more variation in scores.

The scores are less consistent and there are more individual differences in the results.

Question 63

A low SD tells us….

Answer 63

That the mean scores are less spread around the mean so there are less variation in scores.

The scores are more consistent and there are less individual differences in the results.

Question 64

What is the writing frame for when interpreting tables

Answer 64

The mean for condition A (context) _______ is _____ which is higher/lower than the mean for condition B (context) ______which is_____.

Therefore… what does this suggest about the effect on the DV? Link to the scenario. (Must include)

The Standard deviations for condition A (context) _____ is ______ which is higher/lower than the standard deviations for condition B (context) _____ which is _____.

Therefore… what does this suggest about the consistency/spread of data and individual differences? Link to the scenario. (Must include)