RM Flashcards
What is the first step in the research process?
Generate aims and hypothesis
Define ‘aims’ in the context of research.
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate: the purpose of the study.
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that predicts the outcome of the research.
What are the two types of hypotheses used in a study?
Directional and non-directional hypothesis
What does a directional hypothesis specify?
The direction of the difference/relationship.
Give an example of a directional hypothesis.
Memory scores will be lower after caffeine consumption.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
It does not state the direction of the difference/relationship.
Provide an example of a non-directional hypothesis.
Caffeine consumption will have an effect on memory scores.
What does a null hypothesis state?
There will be no difference/relationship found.
Define primary data.
Information obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project.
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted, usually reported as numbers.
Define secondary data.
Information that has already been collected by someone else.
What is qualitative data?
Data expressed in words and is non-numerical.
Fill in the blank: A pilot study is a _______.
small-scale trial of the actual study.
Define independent variable (IV).
The variable that changes in an experiment.
What is the dependent variable (DV)?
The variable that is measured by the researcher.
What are extraneous variables?
Nuisance variables that might interfere with the IV or DV.
Define confounding variables.
these are variables that do affect the IV and the experiments results, because confounding variables change systematically with the IV.
What does operationalisation mean?
Making variables measurable by clearly defining how they will be measured.
True or False: Demand characteristics can change participant behavior.
True
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator’s behavior that affects the outcomes of the study.
Define order effects.
Changes in participants’ performance due to repeating the same or similar test more than once.
What are participant variables?
Individual characteristics of each participant that may impact responses.
What is randomisation in research?
The use of chance to control for the effects of bias.
Define random allocation.
participants are randomly assigned to different conditions, which means that all participants should have an equal chance of being in one condition as any other to reduce the effects of investigator bias and participant variables.
What is counterbalancing?
where participants complete the conditions in different orders to balance out order effects.
What is the single-blind technique?
Participants are not aware of the aim and certain details of the study.
What does the double-blind technique involve?
Both participants and researchers are unaware of the study’s aims.
Define standardisation in research.
Using the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants.
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment carried out in a controlled environment.
List one advantage of laboratory experiments.
- High control of variables increasing internal validity
- Easier to replicate
List one disadvantage of laboratory experiments.
- Low mundane realism which lessens the generalisability of findings and the external validity.
- Participants are aware they’re being studied so demand characteristics
What is a field experiment?
An experiment carried out in a more natural, everyday setting.
What is a natural experiment?
does not need to take place in a natural setting to be a natural experiment, these can be carried out in controlled settings. However, to be a natural experiment, the IV must be naturally occurring
What is a quasi experiment?
The IV is pre-existing and has not been and cannot be easily manipulated or change e.g. age or gender
What is the purpose of observations in research?
To see what a person does without having to ask them.
What is the main difference between observational methods and experiments?
Observations do not involve a manipulated independent variable (IV) and different conditions.
Define naturalistic observation.
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it normally occurs.
What is a key advantage of naturalistic observation?
Higher external validity as behaviour is studied in its natural setting.
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
Less control, making it harder to replicate and increasing the likelihood of extraneous variables that reduce internal validity.
Define controlled observation.
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment where some variables can be managed.
What is a key advantage of controlled observation?
Higher levels of control, making it easier to replicate and reducing extraneous variables which increase internal validity.
What is a disadvantage of controlled observation?
Lower external validity due to less natural behaviour in a controlled setting.
What is covert observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
What is a key advantage of covert observation?
Lower demand characteristics/participant reactivity, leading to higher internal validity.
What is a disadvantage of covert observation?
Ethical concerns arise from observing without knowledge or consent.
What is overt observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
What is a key advantage of overt observation?
More ethical as informed consent is gathered.
What is a disadvantage of overt observation?
Participants are aware they are being observed so demand characteristics/participant reactivity is more likely to effect the results, reducing the internal validity.
Define participant observation.
The researcher becomes a member of the group being studied.
What is a key advantage of participant observation?
Greater insight and understanding of the behaviours studied.
What is a disadvantage of participant observation?
Researchers may lose objectivity and ‘go native’.
Define non-participant observation.
The researcher remains outside the group being studied.
What is a key advantage of non-participant observation?
More objective as researchers maintain a distance from participants.
What is a disadvantage of non-participant observation?
Researchers may miss valuable insights gained from being part of the group.
What are self-report techniques?
Methods that involve asking people to state or explain their feelings, opinions, or behaviours.
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions given to participants to assess their thoughts and experiences.
What is a key advantage of questionnaires?
Cost effective- they can gather large amounts of data and can be distributed to large numbers of people
Data in questionnaires are usually easy to analyse, especially if they use closed/fixed choice questions. This allows data to be easily analysed and compared
What is a disadvantage of questionnaires?
Participants may not give truthful information. Demand characteristics come into play, where the participant figures out the key aims of the study and changes their answers as a result. Participants may also lie to seem more socially desirable. This is particularly likely if the issue is sensitive
What is a structured interview?
A live encounter with pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order.
What is a key advantage of structured interviews?
Standardised questions make them easier to replicate.
Data is often easier to compare as each participant has the same questions.
What is a disadvantage of structured interviews?
Limited insight as participants may not elaborate on their answers.
Participants may not give truthful information. Demand characteristics come into play, where the participant figures out the key aims of the study and changes their answers as a result. Participants may also lie to seem more socially desirable. This is particularly likely if the issue is sensitive.
What is an unstructured interview?
A live encounter with no set questions, allowing for free-flowing conversation so participants can expand and elaborate their answers.
What is a key advantage of unstructured interviews?
Greater insight is gained, as the researcher can ask follow up questions and participants are able to elaborate and explain their points in much more detail.
New topics may even be discovered
What is a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?
Data can be hard to analyse due to its qualitative nature.
Participants may not give truthful information. Demand characteristics come into play, where the participant figures out the key aims of the study and changes their answers as a result. Participants may also lie to seem more socially desirable. This is particularly likely if the issue is sensitive.
Define correlational analysis.
A mathematical analysis investigating the relationship between two variables.
No IV is being manipluated
What is a key advantage of correlational analysis?
It can discover relationships between variables, providing a starting point for research.
Quick and economical - no need for controlled environment and no manipulation of variables.
What is a disadvantage of correlational analysis?
You cannot establish cause and effect. By establishing a relationship between two variables, we cannot be certain which variable causes the change in the other. For example, does playing violent video games lead to greater levels of aggression, or do more aggressive people play more violent video games.
Might be a third variable that effects the relationship.
Define case study.
An in-depth look at an individual or event, often using various data collection methods.
What is a key advantage of case studies?
Provides rich details and greater insight into an individual or case.
Can often study cases that would be unethical to replicate
What is a disadvantage of case studies?
Hard to generalise findings to a wider population.
Case studies are hard to replicate- these situations sometimes only arise once in a lifetime, so it is hard to check the reliability of these findings.
Define longitudinal study.
A study carried out over a long period of time.
What is a key advantage of longitudinal studies?
Assess change over time.
Often involves gathering a large amount of data, which gives us greater insight
What is a disadvantage of longitudinal studies?
High attrition rates - ppt may move away, decide not to take part or die
Time consuming- these studies can last years and are therefore costly.
What is meta-analysis?
research about research. This combines results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall review
What is a key advantage of meta-analysis?
Consider a large amount of data and allows us to view data with more confidence. This allows results to be generalised across much larger populations.
What is a disadvantage of meta-analysis?
Publication bias. The researcher may not include all relevant studies and may choose to leave out studies with negative or non-significant results. This effects the outcome and internal validity of the results
Define population in research context.
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest.
Define sample in research context.
A group of people who take part in a research investigation.
What is a sampling frame?
A list of all members of the population.
Define generalisation in research.
The extent to which findings can be applied beyond the sample to the population.
What is bias in sampling?
Bias occurs when certain groups may be over or under represented in the sample, making it difficult to generalise the findings.
What is random sampling?
A sampling method where all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
What is a key advantage of random sampling?
Free from researcher bias, as the researcher has no influence over who is selected, which prevents them choosing people who may support their hypothesis
What is a disadvantage of random sampling?
More difficult and time-consuming compared to other methods.
The sample may still be unrepresentative, by chance. E.g. you may withdraw 20 participants from a population of men and women, but the 20 you select may all be women by chance. Therefore, a representative sample is not guaranteed
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting every nth member of the target population.
What is a key advantage of systematic sampling?
Free from researcher bias, as the researcher has no influence over who is selected once the system for selection if chosen, which prevents them choosing people who may support their hypothesis..
It is usually quite representative, as the rules of probability suggests that a fairly representative sample should be drawn
What is a disadvantage of systematic sampling?
Participants selected may refuse to take part.
The sample may still be unrepresentative, by chance. E.g. every 3rd person on a list of men and women could be women, resulting in a sample of women only. Therefore, a representative sample is not guaranteed
Define stratified sampling.
When the sample composition reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups within the target population.
What is a key advantage of stratified sampling?
+Free from researcher bias, as the researcher has no influence over who is selected once the sub-groups have been chosen, which prevents them choosing people who may support their hypothesis.
+The sample is likely to be more representative because it is designed to ensure sub groups from the population are fairly represented in the sample.
What is a disadvantage of stratified sampling?
More difficult and time-consuming compared to other methods.
Define opportunity sampling.
A sampling method where anyone available and willing is used in the study.
What is a disadvantage of opportunity sampling?
-There may be researcher bias, as the researcher has complete control over who is selected, and may choose participants who match their hypothesis.
-The sample is likely to be unrepresentative as they will likely be drawn from the same specific place. E.g. lots of experiment use psychology students who are available to the experiment- this is not representative!
What is probability sampling?
Sampling methods that do require a sampling frame
Probability sampling ensures that every member of the population has a known chance of being selected.
List two advantages of opportunity sampling.
- Convenient
- Saves time and money compared to probability sampling
- can be used with no sampling frame
Define volunteer sampling.
Participants select themselves to be part of the sample, also known as self-selection
Participants may respond to advertisements or notices.
List two advantages of volunteer sampling.
- Convenient
- Saves time and money compared to probability sampling
- can be used when there is no sampling frame
What is a disadvantage of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias, as self-selected participants may not represent the population
This often attracts individuals who are more helpful or curious.
What does experimental design refer to?
The arrangement of participants into groups for experiments
Define independent groups in experimental design.
Participants experience only one condition of the independent variable (IV)
This design minimizes order effects.
List two advantages of independent groups.
- No order effects
- Demand characteristics are reduced as the participant only does one condition, so has less information about the experiment, making it harder to work out the aims of the experiment.
What is a disadvantage of independent groups?
Individual differences/participant variables could be a confounding variable because there are different participants in different conditions. Random allocation/matched pairs design can be used to try and reduce this.
-More participants are needed than in a repeated measures design (at least twice as many if there are 2 conditions), making this less economical.
Random allocation can help mitigate this issue.
Define repeated measures in experimental design.
Participants experience all conditions of the independent variable (IV)
This design can lead to order effects.
List two advantages of repeated measures.
Individual differences/participant variables are eliminated as the same participants take part in each condition.
Fewer participants are needed than in an independent groups/matched pairs design.
What is a disadvantage of repeated measures?
- Order effects can occur
- Demand characteristics are more likely as the participant has more information about the experiment so may figure out the aims of the experiment.
Counterbalancing can be used to reduce these effects.
Define matched pairs in experimental design.
This is when participants only experience on condition/level of the IV, but are matched with participants in a different condition based on certain characteristics which could affect the DV
List two advantages of matched pairs.
- No order effects
- Reduces individual differences
What is a disadvantage of matched pairs?
Time-consuming to match participants and loss of data if one drops out
What does observational design involve?
Planning how to observe behaviors, including what to observe and how long
Define unstructured observation.
The researcher observes and notes everything they see, usually qualitative data
List two advantages of unstructured observation.
- Rich, detailed information
- May provide new ideas for research
What is a disadvantage of unstructured observation?
More likely to be researcher bias
Researchers may selectively note behaviors.
Define structured observation.
Observations where target behaviors are identified using pre-determined categories
List two advantages of structured observation.
- Easier to analyze quantitative data
- More systematic data collection
What is a disadvantage of structured observation?
Less rich data compared to unstructured observations
What are behavioral categories in structured observation?
Components of target behavior that are observable and measurable
List two advantages of using behavioral categories.
- Easier to analyze and compare data
- More systematic data collection
What is a disadvantage of behavioral categories?
Categories must be clear and unambiguous to avoid mistakes
Define event sampling.
Counting the number of times a behavior occurs
What is a disadvantage of event sampling?
Important details may be overlooked if the event is complex
Define time sampling.
Recording behavior within a fixed time frame
What is an advantage of time sampling?
Reduces the number of observations needed
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent of agreement between two or more observers
What is the correlation threshold for good inter-observer reliability?
> 0.80
Define open questions in self-report design.
Questions that allow respondents to answer freely, producing qualitative data
List two advantages of open questions.
- Rich, detailed data
- Can highlight new areas of research
What is a disadvantage of open questions?
Harder to analyze qualitative data
Define closed questions in self-report design.
Questions with a fixed choice of responses
List two advantages of closed questions.
- Easy to analyze quantitative data
- More objective analysis
What is a disadvantage of closed questions?
Data is less rich and detailed than open questions
What is validity in research?
The extent to which findings are genuine
Define internal validity.
The extent to which a researcher measures what they intend to measure
What is external validity?
The extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the original study
Define ecological validity.
The extent to which findings can be generalized to other settings and situations
What is population validity?
The extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the original sample
Define temporal/historical validity.
The extent to which findings can be generalized to other historical times and eras
What are ethical issues in research?
Conflicts between participant rights and research goals
What is informed consent?
Participants are made aware of the aims, procedures, and their rights before participating
What is deception in research?
When participants are misled about the aims or information is withheld
What is informed consent?
Participants agree to take part in a study after being informed of its aims and procedures.
Informed consent ensures that participants understand what they are agreeing to before participating in research.
What is deception in research?
Participants are misled about the aims of the experiment, or information is withheld from them.
Deception can compromise informed consent, as participants may not have adequate information.
How should researchers deal with deception?
Participants must be debriefed at the first possible opportunity and informed of their right to withdraw their data.
Debriefing helps clarify the true aims of the study and address any potential distress.
What does the right to withdraw entail?
Participants can withdraw themselves and their data from the study at any point.
This right should be made clear before, during, and after the study.
What is the protection from harm principle?
Participants should not experience more risk than in their daily lives, including physical and psychological harm.
Researchers must stop an experiment if any participant shows signs of physical or psychological danger.
What is confidentiality in research?
Participants have the right to privacy, and their personal data should be protected.
Data is often anonymized to ensure that individual identities are not disclosed.
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted and is usually reported as numbers.
Examples include closed questions and test scores.
What are the advantages of quantitative data?
Easier to analyze, less biased, and can identify patterns.
It increases internal validity due to its structured nature.
What are the disadvantages of quantitative data?
Less rich and detailed, may fail to represent real life.
It often restricts participants’ responses.
What is qualitative data?
Data expressed in words, non-numerical, allowing participants to explain thoughts and feelings.
Examples include open-ended questions and observational notes.
What are the advantages of qualitative data?
Richer detail, greater external validity, provides meaningful insights.
It captures participants’ perspectives more effectively than quantitative data.
What are the disadvantages of qualitative data?
Difficult to analyze and more open to bias.
Subjective interpretations can affect internal validity.
What is primary data?
Information obtained firsthand by researchers for a specific study.
This includes data gathered directly from participants through various methods.
What is secondary data?
Information previously collected by others, pre-dating the current research.
Examples include previous studies and government statistics.
What is descriptive statistics?
Use of graphs, tables, and summary statistics to analyze data trends.
It helps in identifying patterns within data sets.
What does the mean represent in statistics?
The arithmetic average of a data set.
It is calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.
What is the mode in a data set?
The most frequently occurring value.
Data sets can have more than one mode or none at all.
What is the median?
The middle value in an ordered data set.
It is not affected by extreme values.
What is range in statistics?
The difference between the highest and lowest scores, plus one for correction.
It is a simple measure of dispersion.
What is standard deviation?
A measure of how much scores deviate from the mean.
It provides a more precise measure of dispersion than the range.
How do you calculate a percentage?
Divide the part by the whole and multiply by 100.
Example: 36 out of 40 participants is calculated as (36/40) x 100 = 90%.
What is a bar chart used for?
To display differences between groups or conditions using nominal data.
Bars do not touch, representing separate conditions.
What is a scatter graph used for?
To analyze the relationship between two co-variables.
It shows the strength and direction of the correlation.
What defines a positive correlation?
As one variable increases, so does the other.
Closer to +1 indicates a stronger positive relationship.
What is a negative correlation?
As one variable increases, the other decreases.
Closer to -1 indicates a stronger negative relationship.
What is zero correlation?
Indicates no relationship between two variables.
Closer to 0 means weaker correlation.
What is normal distribution?
A symmetrical spread of frequency data forming a bell-shaped curve.
The mean, mode, and median are all located at the center.
What is a positive skew?
Data clustered to the left, with a long tail on the right.
Typically occurs when most scores are lower, indicating a hard test.
What is a negative skew?
Data clustered to the right, with a long tail on the left.
Typically occurs when most scores are higher, indicating an easy test.
What is significance in statistical testing?
Determining whether the difference between groups is meaningful or not.
A significant difference indicates that the result is unlikely due to chance.
What is a negative skew in a distribution?
A negative skew is when most data is clustered to the right-hand side of the curve, with the long tail on the left-hand side.
What is the purpose of a statistical test?
To determine whether a difference found between two groups is significant or due to chance.
What does it mean if a finding is significant?
It means that the experimental hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected.
What is the accepted probability level in psychology for significance?
0.05 (or 5%).
What does a 1% significance level indicate?
There is a 99% chance that the results are truly significant and not due to chance.
When can the sign test be used?
When testing for a difference, using a repeated measures design, and when data is nominal.
How is the calculated value for the sign test (S value) determined?
By converting data to nominal data and counting the signs (+ or -) for participants.
What is the critical value in the sign test?
The value used to compare with the calculated S value to determine significance.
What must the calculated value of S be for significance to be shown?
It must be equal to or less than the critical value.
What is the economic definition of ‘economy’?
The state of a country or region in terms of the production of goods and services.
What was a cost to the economy from Bowlby’s attachment research?
It led to a clear division of labor in households, resulting in fewer workers contributing to the economy.
What is one benefit to the economy from recent attachment research?
It has led to more dual-income households, increasing the number of workers and tax contributions.
What is a cost to the economy associated with treatments for mental illness?
Treatments such as drug therapy and CBT cost the government and NHS money.
What is one benefit to the economy of treating mental illness?
It reduces staff absence, saving the economy approximately £15 billion each year.
What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by other experts in the same field to ensure research quality.
What are the main aims of peer review?
- Validate the quality and relevance of research
- Suggest amendments or improvements
- Prevent inappropriate work from being published
True or False: Peer review can protect the credibility of psychology as a discipline.
True
What is an issue with the anonymity of peer reviewers?
Reviewers may criticize rivals to further their own research.
What challenge is faced in finding experts for peer review?
Psychology is varied, making it difficult to find suitable experts for specialized research.
What is a potential downside of the peer review process regarding groundbreaking research?
It may suppress opposition to mainstream theories and slow down the rate of change within psychology.
