Approaches Flashcards
What is introspection according to Wundt?
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures, thoughts, images and sensations.
This method involved people recording their conscious thoughts in a lab setting.
In what year did Wundt establish the first lab for psychological study?
1879
What methods did Wundt use in his lab?
- Scientific methods
- Standardised instructions
- Controlled settings
- Easily replicated experiments
Who is known as the father of psychology?
Wundt
What was the main contribution of the behaviourist approach?
Focused on visible and observable behaviours, making psychology more objective and scientific.
What approach used lab experiments to infer cognitive processes?
Cognitive approach
What does the biological approach measure and how?
- Biological influences such as hormones
- Conducts experiments in highly controlled settings
What is cognitive neuroscience?
A merger of the cognitive and biological approaches that uses scanning techniques to link brain regions to feelings or disorders.
What was significant about Wundt’s lab?
It was the first lab dedicated to psychological enquiry.
Why are Wundt’s methods sometimes criticized?
They are considered too subjective to be classified as scientific, as they measure private mental processes that are not observable.
Wundt used lab experiments which may have created contrived situations that may lack mundane realism and therefore have low external validity.
What is the key assumption of the behavioural approach?
All behaviours are learned through the consequences of our own behaviour.
What research methods are commonly used in the behavioural approach?
- Lab experiments
- Assessment of observable behaviours
Define classical conditioning.
Learning a new behaviour by the process of association.
What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
A stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (UCR).
What does a neutral stimulus (NS) produce?
No response.
What happens when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is associated with a neutral stimulus (NS)?
The NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
The response produced by a conditioned stimulus (CS) after conditioning.
What did Pavlov observe in his experiments + results?
- Observed salivation at feeding time of dogs
- Gave food (UCS), causing salivation (UCR)
- Started ringing bell (NS) while giving food (UCS)
- After a couple of cycles, stopped giving food with the bell
This suggests that because a previously neutral stimulus caused the same reaction as a UCS, the dogs learned to associate the ringing bell to food
What is positive reinforcement?
Encouraging repetition of a behaviour by giving a reward.
What is negative reinforcement?
Encouraging repetition of a behaviour by taking something unpleasant away.
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
Discouraging repetition of a behaviour with a negative consequence.
What did Skinner observe in his experiments with rats + results?
- Observed rats in a puzzle box
- When rat would move around, it would accidentally knock a lever
- The lever caused food pellets to drop into the container
- After a while, pushing the lever would no longer cause food to drop into the container
What he found:
Rat eventually learned to knock the lever whenever it wanted food, as pushing the lever was positively reinforced with food (reward)
When the rat stopped receiving food for pushing the lever, it eventually stopped pushing the lever altogether, suggesting that the behaviour was extinct
What happens to behaviour when it is reinforced?
The behaviour is repeated and strengthened.
What occurs if behaviour is not reinforced or is punished?
The behaviour will be extinguished.
What is one practical application of behaviourist ideas?
Practical application
* Influencing our understanding of human behaviour in schools - token economy
* Produced highly effective treatments such flooding/systematic desensitisation for treating phobias.
Is the behavioural approach considered scientific?
Yes, it uses lab experiments to study observable behaviour so more scientific and credible
What is a criticism of the behavioural approach regarding its reductionism?
Breaks behaviour down into basic stimulus-response links. Humanistic approach may be more appropriate as it takes into account a wide range of influences on behaviour in its holistic approach. Therefore the approach may be too simplistic
What is a criticism of the behavioural approach regarding its environmental determinism
Believes we are puppets on a string who passively respond to our environment without thinking
There are complex internal processes involved in calculating whether or not we carry out a behaviour, such as attention, retention, motor reproduction or motivation. Therefore, ignores the role of free will
What complex internal processes are ignored by the behavioural approach?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
How does the behavioural approach ignore nature?
Underestimates biological influences such as the influence hormones or genetics have on our behaviour. For example, testosterone is strongly linked to aggression, both of which tend to be more prevalent in men. Therefore not a comprehensive explanation of all behaviours.
True or False: The behavioural approach provides a comprehensive explanation of all behaviours.
False.
What is the key assumption of social learning theory?
Behaviours are learned through observing others.
What research methods are commonly used in social learning theory?
Lab experiments
Builds on behavioural principles and considers cognitive principles.
Define vicarious reinforcement.
Reinforcement not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
Give an example of vicarious reinforcement.
Watching a classmate be punished for not doing homework may prevent other students from not completing their homework.
What does imitation involve?
Using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour.
What is identification in the context of social learning theory?
Imitating behaviours of someone with whom one identifies, known as role models.
What characteristics do role models typically possess?
- Similar characteristics to the observer e.g. gender, age
- High status, e.g., celebrities
How is modelling defined from the observer’s perspective?
Imitating a role model.
How is modelling defined from the role model’s perspective?
Precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
What are mediational processes?
Cognitive factors that influence an individual’s response to stimuli.
List the four mediational processes.
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
What must a person do in the attention mediational process?
Notice the behaviour.
What must a person do in the retention mediational process?
Remember the behaviour.
What does the motor reproduction mediational process involve?
Feeling that one can perform the behaviour.
What influences motivation in the mediational processes?
The will to perform the behaviour, influenced by reward and punishment of the original behaviour.
What did Bandura’s research involve?
Children observed an aggressive or non-aggressive adult model interacting with a Bobo Doll.
What were the findings of Bandura’s research?
Children who observed the aggressive model displayed aggressive behaviour; those who observed the non-aggressive model displayed virtually no aggression.
What percentage of children who saw the aggressive model repeated the model’s verbal response?
1/3 compared to none of the children who observed the non-aggressive model.
What is a practical application of social learning theory?
Explains a wide variety of behaviours such as aggression and gender development.
It emphasises the important role of the media on behaviours, and how it is important that children are not exposed to violent media or this may increase aggression.
How does social learning theory explain cultural differences in behaviours?
Different societies transmit different norms and teach different behaviours.
What is one limitation of social learning theory regarding nature versus nurture?
Underestimates the influence of biological factors. boys showed more aggression than girls, this may be due to the difference in testosterone levels, which is linked to aggression. Therefore, incomplete explanations.
What psychodynamic factors does social learning theory ignore?
The influence of the unconscious mind and unconscious drives on behaviour.
e.g. gender roles may develop due to identification on internalisation of the same sex parents gender through the Oedipus and Electra concept, not via social learning. Therefore incomplete.
Fill in the blank: Social learning theory emphasizes the role of _______ on behaviours.
[media]
True or False: Social learning theory considers both behavioural and cognitive factors.
True
What is the key assumption of the cognitive approach?
Thinking and mental processing affect our behaviours.
What research methods are commonly used in the cognitive approach and why?
Lab experiments.
Have to infer what is happening as internal mental processes as these are private, as we cannot observe thoughts.
What is a schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing developed through expierence.
How do schemas help us?
They help interpret large amounts of data we encounter daily.
What happens to schemas when we experience new things?
New information is added to our schemas constantly.
What is a potential downside of schemas?
They may exclude information that contradicts pre-existing ideas, leading to stereotypes.
What is an example of a schema related to gender?
A gender schema develops as boys and girls learn ‘appropriate’ behaviours for their gender.
What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach?
Simplified illustrations representing mental processes and their flow.
What does a theoretical model often include?
Input, storage, and retrieval.
What is a computer model?
The brain processes information similarly to a computer, involving input, processing, and output.
What does cognitive neuroscience examine?
The influence of brain structures on mental processes.
What technology has advanced cognitive neuroscience research?
PET and fMRI scanning techniques.
What practical application has the cognitive approach found in psychology?
It has been applied to treat depression through Ellis’ ‘ABC model’ and Beck’s ‘Negative triad’.
Why is the cognitive approach considered more scientific?
It uses controlled lab experiments and brain scanning techniques.
cognitive neuroscience uses brain scanning techniques, so therefore is more scientific.
more credible
How does the cognitive approach differ in terms of determinism?
It takes a soft determinist approach, allowing for free thinking before responding to stimulus.
considers free wull
What is a critique regarding machine reductionism in the cognitive approach?
It oversimplifies human processing by comparing it directly to computers.
differences between a computer and a human e.g. computers do not make mistakes, does not ignore information, and does not forget anything that has been stored on the hard drive- all of which humans do.
computers do not expierence emotion which influences processing
What psychodynamic factors does the cognitive approach ignore?
The influence of the unconscious mind and unconscious drives on behaviour e.g. gender roles may develop due to identification on internalisation of the same sex parents gender through the Oedipus and Electra concept, not via schemas. Therefore incomplet
Fill in the blank: A schema is developed through _______.
[experience].
What is the key assumption of the biological approach?
All behaviours have a physical, internal cause.
What research methods are commonly used in the biological approach?
Scientific techniques and lab experiments, twin studies.
What are the concordance rates of MZ and DZ twins?
MZ twins share 100% same genes; DZ twins share 50% same genes.
What is heredity?
Passing on characteristics from one generation to the next through genes.
What do children inherit from their parents?
Physical and psychological traits.
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes that a person possesses.
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
What is the role of certain brain regions in behaviour?
Certain brain regions may be responsible for certain behaviours.
What is the limbic system associated with?
Aggression.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical/electrical messengers in the brain which may be responsible for behaviours.
What effects can neurotransmitters have?
Excitary (speeds up neural activity by making neurons more likely to fire) or inhibitory (dampens neural activity by making neurons less likely to fire) .
Which neurotransmitter is linked to schizophrenia?
Dopamine.
Which neurotransmitter is linked to OCD?
Low levels of serotonin.
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system.
What is the function of hormones?
Stimulate target cells to produce physiological reactions.
What does the theory of natural selection state?
Inherited characteristics enhance reproductive success and are passed to the next generation.
What is a practical application of the biological approach?
Development of drug therapies for mental illnesses such as OCD, depression and schizophrenia
What makes the biological approach scientific
Highly controlled experiments, helps researcher replicate research studies under the same conditions- adds to the internal validity
How is the biological approach biologically deterministic?
believes a range of behaviour (mental illness, gender etc) are pre programmed and internal factors.
However, humanistic approach believes we have free will.
What psychodynamic factors does the biological approach ignore?
The influence of the unconscious mind and drives.
e.g gender roles may develop due to identification on internalisation of the same sex parents gender through the Oedipus and Electra concept, not via genes, hormones and evolution. Therefore incomplete.
Fill in the blank: The biological approach has led to effective treatments for _______.
[mental illnesses/disorders].
What is the key assumption of the psychodynamic approach?
Many of our behaviours occur due to unconscious forces.
What research methods are commonly used in the psychodynamic approach?
Case studies of abnormal behaviour (idiographic approach) then used to develop theories (nomothetic approach)
What does the conscious mind contain?
All thoughts and actions that you are aware of.
How did Freud describe the conscious mind in relation to the unconscious mind?
As the tip of the iceberg.
What drives much of our behaviour according to the psychodynamic approach?
The unconscious mind.
What is the unconscious mind
part of the mind that we are unaware of.
biological drives and instincts, as well as painful and traumatic memories that we may have repressed.
What is the preconscious mind?
The part of the mind just under the surface of consciousness where thoughts may enter consciousness.
What are the three parts of personality according to Freud?
Id, ego, superego.
What principle does the id operate on?
Pleasure principle.
requires instant gratification and is ultimately selfish
What principle does the ego operate on?
reality principle
mediator between the other two parts of personality
What principle does the superego operate on?
Morality principle.
internalised sense of right and wrong
What is repression in the context of ego defence mechanisms?
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind so it can be forgotten.
What is denial in the context of ego defence mechanisms?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
What is displacement in the context of ego defence mechanisms?
Transferring feelings from the source of distress to a substitute target.
What are the psychosexual stages of development according to Freud?
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
oral stage
(0-1 years). Focus of pleasure is the mouth. Object of desire is mother’s breast. Unresolved consequence is oral fixation (smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical)
anal stage
(1-3 years). Focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. Unresolved consequences is an anally retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or anally expulsive (thoughtless, messy) personality.
phallic stage
(3-5 years). Focus of pleasure is the genital area. This is when the child experiences Oedipus/Electra Complex and their gender develops. Unresolved consequences may include narcissism, recklessness, possibly homosexuality.
latency stage
Earlier conflicts are repressed and focus is on school work, hobbies, and friendships.
genital stage
sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. Unresolved consequences may include difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Oedipus complex
a boy experiences unconscious desires for his mother and jealousy or rivalry toward his father. This leads to feelings of guilt and anxiety, as the child fears punishment (often symbolized as castration) from the father.
resolve by identifying with dad.
Electra complex
The Electra complex, as proposed by Freud, describes a stage in female psychosexual development where a young girl experiences unconscious desire for her father and views her mother as a rival. This complex is intertwined with penis envy, the concept that the girl feels a sense of inadequacy or jealousy upon realizing that she lacks a penis, which Freud associated with power. This feeling of loss leads the girl to desire her father, hoping that he can provide what she lacks. Over time, the girl resolves this conflict by identifying with her mother, adopting traditional feminine roles and values, and letting go of the desire for the father.
What is one piece of research support for the psychodynamic approach?
Detailed case studies like Little Hans- fear of horses explained through odepius conflict.
increase validdity
How can the psychodanymic approach be applied?
psychoanalysis-A way to access the unconscious mind using techniques like dream analysis and hypnosis.
versions still used today to treat dusorders such as depression
What does the psychodynamic approach believe about free will?
Free will is an illusion; behaviours are due to unconscious conflicts.
deterministic
What is a criticism of the psychodynamic approach regarding scientific testing?
Untestable concepts
Many concepts are difficult to test scientifically because they occur at the unconscious level
e.g. conflict between id, ego and super ego
What is a criticism related to gender bias in Freud’s theories?
Theories were written from a male perspective and have an incomplete portrayal of female development.
e.g. oedipus complex is complex but electra is under developed
What term describes the belief that our behaviours are determined by unconscious drives?
Determinism.
Fill in the blank: Freud’s case studies have been criticized for being _______.
[subjective and difficult to generalize].
True or False: The Electra complex is as thoroughly detailed as the Oedipus complex in Freud’s theories.
False.
What is the key assumption of the humanistic approach?
Subject experiences of individuals are important, and all individuals have the desire to grow and reach their potential.
What research methods are used in the humanistic approach?
Case studies and qualitative data.
It is an idiographic approach that does not aim to generalize findings.
Define free will in the context of the humanistic approach.
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors.
What does the humanistic approach believe about human behavior?
Humans are self-determining, active agents who make choices and decisions.
Maslow’s hierachy of needs
What is self-actualisation?
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfill one’s full potential.
What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain?
Basic and psychological needs must be met before self-actualisation can occur.
What is congruence?
When your current concept of self and ideal self broadly match.
What is incongruence?
When your current self and ideal self do not match, leading to low self-esteem and self actualisation will not be possible.
Define conditions of worth.
When a parent places limits on their love for their children, which can lead to psychological problems such as low self esteem
What is client-centred therapy?
A therapy developed by Rogers to help individuals with low self-esteem and self-actualisation.
How are individuals referred to in therapy within the humanistic approach?
As ‘clients’, not ‘patients’.
What qualities must a therapist possess in the humanistic approach?
Genuine, empathetic, and must provide unconditional positive regard.
What is a positive aspect of the humanistic approach?
It brings the person back into psychology and promotes a positive image of individuals as it sees all people as basically good and free to work towards achieving their potential.
optimistic
What practical application has the humanistic approach led to?
The development of client-centred therapy.
This revolutionised counselling techniques, and has been particularly successful in the workplace which has improved lives.
What does the holistic perspective in the humanistic approach entail?
Subjective experience is understood by considering the whole person.
therefore, the humanistic approach may have better validity as it may be better at considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
What is a criticism of the humanistic approach regarding cultural bias?
It was developed in the west and may not be applicable to collectivist cultures.
approach may not be applicable to all cultures.
True or False: The humanistic approach is considered scientific.
False.
It is criticized for being anti-scientific with vague ideas that are difficult to assess.
What challenges does the humanistic approach face in terms of measurement?
Concepts like self-actualisation and congruence are difficult to measure.
