Psychopathology Flashcards
1
Q
What is statistical infrequency and name an example?
A
When a certain behaviour is not common within the population and does not fall inside of the normal distribution, the individual can be seen to be abnormal.
higher/lower IQ than average
2
Q
What IQ range is considered common?
A
85-115
3
Q
What happens if someone’s IQ is higher or lower than the common range?
A
They may be seen as abnormal.
4
Q
What is deviation from social norms and name an example
A
When behaviours are different from the accepted standard of behaviours in a community or society, these can be deemed as abnormal.
ASPD
5
Q
What does ASPD stand for?
A
Antisocial Personality Disorder
6
Q
What are the characteristics of ASPD?
A
Impulsivity, aggression, and a lack of empathy.
7
Q
What is failure to function adequately and name an example?
A
When somebody is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living.
Depression
8
Q
How might depression affect someone’s daily functioning?
A
A person who is depressed may not feel able to get out of bed and go to work, which would affect their ability to hold down a job.
9
Q
What is deviation from ideal mental health and give an example
A
When a person does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health.
inability to deal with stress=anxiety/depression
10
Q
What are the criteria for good mental health according to Jahoda? (List at least three)
A
- No symptoms or distress
- Good self-esteem
- Self-actualisation (can reach our potential)
- Accurate perception of ourselves and the world
- Independence from others
- Ability to cope with stress
- Successfully work, love, and enjoy leisure.
11
Q
What is a harmful diagnosis in the context of abnormality?
A
Diagnosing/labelling an individual as abnormal may cause more harm than good if they are living a happy and fulfilling life.
This can lead to negative stereotypes and stigma.
12
Q
Can abnormal characteristics be positive? Give an example.
A
Yes, being outside of the normal distribution for a behavior can be positive. For example, a high IQ may be desirable.
This raises the question of whether such traits should be considered abnormal.
13
Q
Why are people diagnosed with certain conditions susceptible to abuse?
A
“Susceptible to abuse: People diagnosed with this condition can be vulnerable to mistreatment. For example, homosexuality was considered illegal and classified as a mental illness 50 years ago, leading to hate crimes and inhumane treatments. Today, this is widely recognized as unjust, reflecting how social norms and attitudes have evolved.”
14
Q
What does cultural relativism imply about defining abnormality?
A
Social norms differ across cultures, making it problematic to label behaviors as abnormal based on a single cultural standard.
For example, hearing voices may be accepted in some cultures but could lead to a mental illness diagnosis in others.
15
Q
What role do subjective judgments play in diagnosing abnormality?
A
Someone must judge whether the patient is distressed or distressing, which can be difficult to assess objectively.
Ultimately, the psychiatrist’s judgment is crucial in this process.
16
Q
What external factors can affect an individual’s functioning?
A
Economic downturns or conscious choices may impact a person’s ability to function adequately, not just mental health issues.
For example, someone might struggle to hold a job due to external circumstances rather than personal inadequacy.
17
Q
What is the issue with unrealistic criteria in defining abnormality?
A
It is unlikely that anyone meets all criteria for abnormality, raising questions about how many criteria one must lack to be considered abnormal.
This creates ambiguity in the diagnosis process.
18
Q
What is the problem with Western bias in criteria for abnormality?
A
Imposed etic
Criteria may not be applicable to other cultures, particularly collectivist cultures that prioritize group success over individual achievement.
Concepts like self-actualization are rooted in individualistic perspectives.
19
Q
What are the behavioral characteristics of phobias?
A
Panic, Avoidance, Endurance
These behaviors manifest in response to the phobic stimulus.
20
Q
What is the fight or flight response in the context of phobias?
A
An adaptive response originating from the idea of ‘playing dead’
This response is triggered in threatening situations.
21
Q
What distinguishes phobias from general fears?
A
Interferes with person’s normal routine, marked distress about having phobia
This interference affects occupation, social activities, and relationships.
22
Q
Emotional characteristics of phobias
A
Fear that is marked and persistent
Likely to be excessive and unreasonable
Cued by presence/anticipation
Out of proportion to actual danger
23
Q
True or False: Individuals with phobias recognize that their fear is excessive.
A
True
This recognition is absent in children with phobias.
24
Q
Cognitive characteristics of phobias
A
Irrational thinking and resistance to rational arguments
Selective attention – all focus remains on the phobic stimulus
Cognitive distortions – we might see the phobic stimulus differently
25
behavioural characteristics of depression
Shift in activity level (reduced or increased)
Reduced energy, tiredness, wishing to sleep all the time
Some become increasingly agitated, restless
Effected appetite (overeating or not eating)
26
What may cause anger in individuals with depression?
Directed inwards or towards others, often arising from feelings of hurt
## Footnote
This anger can stem from a desire to retaliate.
27
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
Sadness; feeling empty, worthless, hopeless, low self esteem
Loss of interest/pleasure in activities
Feelings of despair, lack of control
Anger towards others/directed inwards, may arise from being hurt, wishing to retaliate
## Footnote
These feelings contribute to a negative self-concept.
28
What is a common outcome of negative emotions and thoughts in depression?
Self-fulfilling prophecy
## Footnote
An example is thinking, 'I’m going to fail this exam,' which leads to reduced effort and increased anxiety.
29
Cognitive characterisitics of depression
Negative emotions and negative thoughts effect self-concept, create self-fulfilling prophecy: (“I’m going to fail this exam” -> reduced effort + increased anxiety -> more likely to fail exam)
Absolutist (black and white) thinking
30
Cognitive characteristics of OCD
Obsessions, recurrent, intrusive thoughts/impulses
May be frightening, embarrassing, inappropriate or forbidden
Seen as uncontrollable, create anxiety
Recognised as product of own mind (contrary to Schizophrenia)
31
Fill in the blank: Obsessions in OCD are _______.
[recurrent, intrusive thoughts/impulses]
## Footnote
These thoughts can be frightening, embarrassing, or inappropriate.
32
What distinguishes obsessions in OCD from symptoms of schizophrenia?
Obsessions are recognized as products of one’s own mind
## Footnote
In schizophrenia, such thoughts may be perceived as external.
33
Behavioural characteristics of OCD
Compulsive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety created by obsessions (e.g. excessively washing hands)
They are repetitive and unconcealed, sufferers are compelled to do so out of fear that something will happen if they don’t
Behaviours are not realistically connected to what they are trying to neutralise/prevent
34
Emotional characteristics of OCD
Source of anxiety and distress
Sufferers are aware their behaviour is excessive, which (along with intrusive thoughts) creates feelings of embarrassment, shame and disgust
35
What is classical conditioning?
Learning through association
## Footnote
Involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response.
36
What does UCS stand for?
Unconditioned Stimulus
## Footnote
The stimulus that naturally triggers a fear response.
37
What is the UCR in classical conditioning?
Unconditioned Response
## Footnote
The natural fear response triggered by the UCS.
38
What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
A stimulus that does not initially produce a fear response
## Footnote
It becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with the UCS.
39
What happens when the NS is paired with the UCS?
It produces a fear response
## Footnote
The NS eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).
40
After consistent pairing, what does the NS become?
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
## Footnote
It now alone can produce a conditioned response (CR) of fear.
41
What is the result of developing a phobia?
The NS becomes a CS and triggers a CR of fear
## Footnote
This process illustrates the development of a phobia.
42
Who conducted the Little Albert experiment?
Watson and Rayner (1920)
## Footnote
This case study created a phobia in a 9-month-old baby.
43
What was the initial response of Little Albert to the white rat?
No fear response (Neutral Stimulus)
## Footnote
The white rat did not initially produce fear.
44
What was paired with the white rat to create fear in Little Albert?
A loud banging sound (UCS)
## Footnote
This sound produced a fear response (UCR).
45
What did Little Albert develop fear of after the experiment?
Rats and similar furry objects
## Footnote
He generalized his fear to other objects like a fur coat and a Santa Claus bear.
46
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcement
## Footnote
It involves behaviors being strengthened or weakened by consequences.
47
How does avoidance of the phobic stimulus affect the phobia?
It results in negative reinforcement
## Footnote
This avoids negative emotions like anxiety, thus maintaining the phobia.
48
Fill in the blank: Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an _______.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
## Footnote
This pairing leads to the development of a conditioned response.
49
True or False: Little Albert's fear was limited only to the white rat.
False
## Footnote
He generalized his fear to other similar furry objects.
50
What is a pracitcal application of the two process model
Two process model explains how phobias are acquired and maintained, helping our understanding of how to combat such mental health problems.
led to highly efffective therapies such as systematic desensitation and flooding
51
How is the two proccess model a limited explanation
The model cannot explain all phobias; some fears may be adaptive e.g. fear of snakes (evolutionary)
Some phobias exist without a traumatic experience,
52
What is the main aim of behavioural therapies for phobias?
To unlearn the phobia by experiencing the phobic stimulus and reducing the anxiety associated.
53
What techniques are taught to clients before starting systematic desensitisation?
Relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and breathing techniques.
54
What is progressive muscle relaxation?
A technique where the client attempts to relax each part of their body at a time.
55
What is the anxiety hierarchy?
A series of steps constructed by the therapist and client that involves gradual exposure to the phobia.
56
In the anxiety hierarchy, how is exposure to the phobia structured?
The extent to which the client faces their phobia is gradually increased, e.g. seeing an image, then a video, then being in the same room, then touching the snake.
57
What condition must be met for a client to progress to the next stage in systematic desensitisation?
The client must successfully employ the relaxation techniques taught before therapy at the time of exposure to unlearn the phobia
58
What is gradual exposure in the context of systematic desensitisation?
The phobic stimulus is gradually introduced, allowing the patient to withdraw from therapy if necessary.
59
How is SD effective
McGrath 1990 found a 75% effectiveness rate amongst patients who went through SD. Suggests SD effective for wide range of participant
60
What are negatives of SD
More time consuming than flooding- it takes 6-8 sessions
this costs time and money for the therapist and the patient
61
Why is SD ethical
Patients prefer it, because there is less trauma due to gradual exposure (protection from harm). There are high sign up rates and low dropout rates for this therapy
Right to withdraw
62
What occurs during the immediate exposure phase of flooding?
The patient is exposed in one full dose to their phobic stimulus and must employ relaxation techniques previously learnt.
63
What may happen to a patient after flooding?
they realise the CS (phobia) is harmless and the CS no longer produces a fear response. This is called extinction
64
True or False: Flooding is considered unethical.
False
65
What is important to gain before conducting flooding therapy?
Full informed consent and ensuring patients are fully prepared for the experience.
66
How effective is Flooding?
Ougrin (2011) found that flooding was just effective as other therapies.
67
How is flooding time and cost effective
it is one long intense session (usually 2-3 hpurs), less money can be spent on therapy sessions. Thus this reduces time and financial burden on clients and the NHS.
68
How may flooding not be appropiate treament?
It may not be appropriate for phobias that have cognitive Aspects, such as social phobia. PPT doesnt just expierence anxiety, but also negative thoughts, therefore, CBT may be more appropriate to challenge the irrational thoughts.
69
What does the cognitive approach to explaining depression assume?
Depression exists because of faulty or irrational thought processes.
## Footnote
This approach emphasizes the role of cognitive distortions in the development of depressive symptoms.
70
What is a schema?
A package of ideas and information developed through experience.
## Footnote
Schemas serve as mental frameworks that influence how we interpret sensory information.
71
What is a self-schema and what does it lead to?
A negative schema we have about ourselves.
## Footnote
It leads to interpreting information about oneself in a negative way.
72
What are the three types of negative thinking processes in Beck's negative triad?
* A negative view of the world
* A negative view of the self
* A negative view of the future
## Footnote
These negative thoughts can exacerbate depressive symptoms and feelings of hopelessness.
73
What does a negative view of the world entail?
The belief that hope can't be found anywhere.
## Footnote
This perspective contributes to feelings of despair and helplessness.
74
What is an example of a negative view of the self and what can it enhance?
Thinking one is a failure.
## Footnote
This thought can enhance existing depressive feelings and lower self-esteem.
75
What does a negative view of the future involve?
Believing that nothing will change in the future.
## Footnote
This can increase feelings of hopelessness and enhance depression.
76
What is Ellis’ ABC model used to explain?
The cause of depression through irrational thinking.
## Footnote
It outlines how negative events trigger irrational beliefs that lead to depressive consequences.
77
In Ellis' ABC model, what does 'A' stand for?
Activating event.
## Footnote
These are negative events that trigger irrational thoughts.
78
What does 'B' represent in Ellis' ABC model?
Beliefs, specifically irrational beliefs.
79
What does 'C' signify in Ellis' ABC model?
Consequences, the effects of A triggering B.
## Footnote
For instance, failing to meet a belief in perfection can lead to depression.
80
What is a practical application of Beck's cognitive explanation?
It forms the base for Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)
## Footnote
CBT challenges all cognitive aspects of depression.
81
What did Ellis' ABC model lead to?
The creation of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
## Footnote
REBT focuses on challenging irrational thoughts to reduce depression.
82
What is a criticism of cognitive explanations for depression?
They ignore biological factors
## Footnote
Biological approaches highlight the role of genes and neurotransmitters like serotonin.
83
What is a limitation of cognitive theories like those of Beck and Ellis?
They provide a limited explanation of depression
## Footnote
Depression's complexity includes symptoms like deep anger and hallucinations, which are not explained by these theories.
84
Fill in the blank: The belief that challenging irrational thoughts can reduce depression is central to _______.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
85
True or False: Beck's cognitive approach fully explains all aspects of depression.
False
## Footnote
Beck's approach does not account for all symptoms experienced by patients.
86
What neurotransmitter is mentioned as playing a role in depression?
Serotonin
87
According to cognitive theories, what can challenging cognitive aspects lead to?
Reduction of depression
88
What is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)?
A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques that aims to challenge negative thinking.
89
What does Beck’s negative triad focus on?
Identifying negative thoughts about the world, the self, and the future.
90
How does Beck’s cognitive therapy help patients?
It helps patients challenge their negative beliefs and test the reality of their negative thoughts.
91
What role does homework play in Beck’s cognitive therapy?
Patients record everything good that happened to them, which is later used to prove their negative thoughts are incorrect.
92
In Beck’s cognitive therapy, what is the patient referred to as?
The scientist.
93
What is the purpose of the patient being 'the scientist' in therapy?
To direct lots of the therapy by gathering evidence to prove their thoughts are irrational.
94
What does REBT stand for and who made it?
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy.
Ellis
95
How does REBT differ from Beck’s cognitive therapy?
The patient is much more directive in REBT than during Beck’s cognitive therapy.
96
What does the 'D' in the ABC model of REBT stand for?
Disputing.
97
What is the goal of disputing in REBT?
To identify and challenge the patient’s irrational thoughts with vigorous arguments.
98
What are the two methods of disputing in REBT?
* Empirical disputing
* Logical argument disputing
99
What is Empirical disputing
disputing whether there is actual evidence to support the negative belief
100
What is Logical Arguement disputing
disputing whether the negative thought logically follows from the fact/event
101
What does the 'E' in the ABC model of REBT stand for?
Effect.
102
What should the patient feel after disputing their thoughts in REBT?
They should feel better.
103
Fill in the blank: The therapy aims to challenge _______ thinking.
[negative]
104
What was the outcome of March et al.'s comparison of CBT and antidepressants in adolescents with depression?
After 26 weeks, 81% of CBT patients, 81% of antidepressants group, and 86% of CBT and antidepressants groups improved.
## Footnote
Shows CBT is effective - postiive of cbt
105
How effective is CBT compared to medication for treating depression?
CBT is as effective as medication.
106
What are the limitations of CBT in treating depression?
CBT may not be effective for all cases, especially for patients with severe depression who may struggle to engage or attend sessions.
107
What does CBT focus on to reduce relapse rates in depression?
CBT focuses on challenging patients' thoughts and helping them prove that their thoughts are irrational.
108
What is the relapse rate of CBT compared to drug therapies?
CBT has a lower relapse rate compared to drug therapies, which have higher relapse rates once medication is stopped.
109
True or False: All patients with depression can benefit from CBT.
False
110
Fill in the blank: After treatment, _____% of patients in the CBT group showed improvement.
81%
111
Fill in the blank: CBT teaches patients skills that they can use in the _______.
future
112
What is the role of genes in explaining OCD?
Genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD.
113
What did Lewis (1936) observe about OCD in families?
37% of patients with OCD had parents with OCD, and 21% had siblings with OCD.
114
How is OCD aetiologically heterogeneous
different genetic combinations may cause the same disordrer (OCD) in different people
115
What does the diathesis-stress model suggest about OCD?
Certain genes increase vulnerability, but environmental stress is the trigger.
116
What are candidate genes in the context of OCD?
Genes that create vulnerability, some of which regulate the serotonin system.
117
Which gene is implicated in the efficiency of serotonin transport?
5HT1-D
118
How is OCD polygenic and how many genes are involved in OCD?
Many different genes are linked to vulnerability
Up to 230 genes.
119
What is the relationship between genes and neurotransmitters in OCD?
Genes affect levels of key neurotransmitters and brain structures.
120
What role does serotonin play in OCD?
Serotonin helps regulate mood; too little can lead to affected mood and OCD.
121
What is associated with impaired decision-making systems in OCD?
Hoarding behavior.
122
Which brain structure is associated with OCD decision-making issues?
Frontal lobes.
123
Name a supporting piece of research for the biological explnation of OCD
Nestadt et al 2010
124
What percentage of monozygotic twins shared OCD according to Nestadt et al 2010?
68%
## Footnote
This study supports the genetic influence on OCD.
125
What percentage of dyzygotic twins shared OCD according to Nestadt et al 2010?
31%
## Footnote
This contrast with monozygotic twins strengthens the argument for genetic factors.
126
What does the biological approach to OCD ignore?
This approach focuses on biological factors rather than environmental ones.
127
What environmental factor does the behavioral explanation of OCD consider?
Traumatic events
## Footnote
These events could be triggers for OCD symptoms.
128
What was the finding of Cromer et al 2007 regarding OCD patients and traumatic events?
Over half had a traumatic event in their past
## Footnote
This suggests a link between trauma and the severity of OCD rather than genes.
129
What model does Cromer et al's finding support?
Diathesis-stress model
## Footnote
This model explains how predisposition and environmental factors interact.
130
What is a methological issue with studies into OCD?
However, twin studies have issues because it overlooks how twins are treated, identical twins tend to be treated the same and suffer from “identity confusion.” This means their environment is also similar, which could have an influence on OCD and partially explain the higher concordance rates
## Footnote
Identical twins often experience similar environments, which may influence OCD.
131
What is one consequence of identical twins being treated the same?
Identity confusion
## Footnote
This can complicate the understanding of OCD's genetic versus environmental influences.
132
True or False: The biological approach to OCD considers environmental factors.
False
## Footnote
The biological approach focuses on genetic and biological factors.
133
Fill in the blank: The biological approach to OCD supports the idea of _______ influence.
genetic
## Footnote
This is based on the concordance rates observed in twin studies.
134
What key factor is ignored by the biological approach that is considered by behavioral explanations?
Environmental factors
## Footnote
These include past traumatic experiences that may trigger OCD.
135
What is the main goal of drug therapy in treating OCD?
To increase the low level of serotonin associated with OCD
## Footnote
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter linked to mood regulation.
136
How do SSRIs function in the treatment of OCD?
They block the pre-synaptic neuron and prevent reuptake of serotonin
## Footnote
This action leaves more serotonin available in the synaptic gap.
137
What is the effect of increased serotonin levels on individuals with OCD?
They make the individual feel better
138
What is combination therapy in the context of OCD treatment?
Using drugs alongside cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
## Footnote
This approach aims to enhance treatment effectiveness.
139
What emotional symptoms do drugs aim to reduce in OCD patients?
Anxiety and depression
140
What is the purpose of reducing emotional symptoms with medication in OCD treatment?
To enable patients to engage more effectively with CBT
141
What is an alternative to SSRIs for treating OCD?
Tricyclics or SNRIs
## Footnote
Example: Clomipramine (tricyclics)
142
How do tricyclics compare to SSRIs in their effect on the serotonin system?
They have the same effect on the serotonin system
143
When are tricyclics typically used in OCD treatment?
Only when patients don’t respond to SSRIs
144
What are the potential side effects of tricyclics compared to SSRIs?
For those taking Clomipramine, side-effects are more common and can be more serious. More than 1 in 10 patients suffer erection problems and weight gain, 1 in 100 become aggressive and suffer disruptive.
145
What did Soomro et al review in their study on OCD?
17 studies comparing SSRIs to placebos in treating OCD
146
What was the outcome of the studies reviewed by Soomro et al regarding SSRIs?
All 17 studies showed significantly better results for SSRIs than for the placebo conditions
147
How does the effectiveness of SSRIs change when combined with other therapies?
Effectiveness is greatest when SSRIs are combined with CBT
148
What are some common side effects of SSRIs?
* Indigestion
* Blurred vision
* Loss of sex drive
Although these are only temporary
149
What is noted about the side effects of Clomipramine compared to SSRIs?
Side effects are more common and can be more serious
150
What percentage of patients taking Clomipramine suffer from erection problems and weight gain?
More than 1 in 10 patients
151
What rare side effects can occur in patients taking Clomipramine?
1 in 100 become aggressive and suffer disruptive behavior
152
In what cases might drug therapies for OCD be considered inappropriate?
* Cases without a biological cause
* Cases following trauma
153
What type of therapies may provide the best option for cases of OCD following trauma?
Psychological therapies
154
Fill in the blank: Effectiveness of SSRIs is greatest when combined with _______.
[CBT]
155
True or False: All patients benefit from SSRIs when treating OCD.
False
